Small-bias sample space

In theoretical computer science, a small-bias sample space (also known as $\epsilon$ -biased sample space, $\epsilon$ -biased generator, or small-bias probability space) is a probability distribution that fools parity functions. In other words, no parity function can distinguish between a small-bias sample space and the uniform distribution with high probability, and hence, small-bias sample spaces naturally give rise to pseudorandom generators for parity functions.

The main useful property of small-bias sample spaces is that they need far fewer truly random bits than the uniform distribution to fool parities. Efficient constructions of small-bias sample spaces have found many applications in computer science, some of which are derandomization, error-correcting codes, and probabilistically checkable proofs. The connection with error-correcting codes is in fact very strong since $\epsilon$ -biased sample spaces are equivalent to $\epsilon$ -balanced error-correcting codes.

Definition

Bias

Let $X$ be a probability distribution over $\{0,1\}^{n}$ . The bias of $X$ with respect to a set of indices $I\subseteq \{1,\dots ,n\}$ is defined as^[1]

{\text{bias}}_{I}(X)=\left|\Pr _{x\sim X}\left(\sum _{i\in I}x_{i}=0\right)-\Pr _{x\sim X}\left(\sum _{i\in I}x_{i}=1\right)\right|=\left|2\cdot \Pr _{x\sim X}\left(\sum _{i\in I}x_{i}=0\right)-1\right|\,,

where the sum is taken over $\mathbb {F} _{2}$ , the finite field with two elements. In other words, the sum $\sum _{i\in I}x_{i}$ equals $0$ if the number of ones in the sample $x\in \{0,1\}^{n}$ at the positions defined by $I$ is even, and otherwise, the sum equals $1$ . For $I=\emptyset$ , the empty sum is defined to be zero, and hence ${\text{bias}}_{\emptyset }(X)=1$ .

ϵ-biased sample space

A probability distribution $X$ over $\{0,1\}^{n}$ is called an $\epsilon$ -biased sample space if ${\text{bias}}_{I}(X)\leq \epsilon$ holds for all non-empty subsets $I\subseteq \{1,2,\ldots ,n\}$ .

ϵ-biased set

An $\epsilon$ -biased sample space $X$ that is generated by picking a uniform element from a multiset $X\subseteq \{0,1\}^{n}$ is called $\epsilon$ -biased set. The size $s$ of an $\epsilon$ -biased set $X$ is the size of the multiset that generates the sample space.

ϵ-biased generator

An $\epsilon$ -biased generator $G:\{0,1\}^{\ell }\to \{0,1\}^{n}$ is a function that maps strings of length $\ell$ to strings of length $n$ such that the multiset $X_{G}=\{G(y)\;\vert \;y\in \{0,1\}^{\ell }\}$ is an $\epsilon$ -biased set. The seed length of the generator is the number $\ell$ and is related to the size of the $\epsilon$ -biased set $X_{G}$ via the equation $s=2^{\ell }$ .

Connection with epsilon-balanced error-correcting codes

There is a close connection between $\epsilon$ -biased sets and $\epsilon$ -balanced linear error-correcting codes. A linear code $C:\{0,1\}^{n}\to \{0,1\}^{s}$ of message length $n$ and block length $s$ is $\epsilon$ -balanced if the Hamming weight of every nonzero codeword $C(x)$ is between $({\frac {1}{2}}-\epsilon )s$ and $({\frac {1}{2}}+\epsilon )s$ . Since $C$ is a linear code, its generator matrix is an $(n\times s)$ -matrix $A$ over $\mathbb {F} _{2}$ with $C(x)=x\cdot A$ .

Then it holds that a multiset $X\subset \{0,1\}^{n}$ is $\epsilon$ -biased if and only if the linear code $C_{X}$ , whose columns are exactly elements of $X$ , is $\epsilon$ -balanced.^[2]

Constructions of small epsilon-biased sets

Usually the goal is to find $\epsilon$ -biased sets that have a small size $s$ relative to the parameters $n$ and $\epsilon$ . This is because a smaller size $s$ means that the amount of randomness needed to pick a random element from the set is smaller, and so the set can be used to fool parities using few random bits.

Theoretical bounds

The probabilistic method gives a non-explicit construction that achieves size $s=O(n/\epsilon ^{2})$ .^[2] The construction is non-explicit in the sense that finding the $\epsilon$ -biased set requires a lot of true randomness, which does not help towards the goal of reducing the overall randomness. However, this non-explicit construction is useful because it shows that these efficient codes exist. On the other hand, the best known lower bound for the size of $\epsilon$ -biased sets is $s=\Omega (n/(\epsilon ^{2}\log(1/\epsilon ))$ , that is, in order for a set to be $\epsilon$ -biased, it must be at least that big.^[2]

Explicit constructions

There are many explicit, i.e., deterministic constructions of $\epsilon$ -biased sets with various parameter settings:

Naor & Naor (1990) achieve $\displaystyle s={\frac {n}{{\text{poly}}(\epsilon )}}$ . The construction makes use of Justesen codes (which is a concatenation of Reed–Solomon codes with the Wozencraft ensemble) as well as expander walk sampling.
Alon et al. (1992) achieve $\displaystyle s=O\left({\frac {n}{\epsilon \log(n/\epsilon )}}\right)^{2}$ . One of their constructions is the concatenation of Reed–Solomon codes with the Hadamard code; this concatenation turns out to be an $\epsilon$ -balanced code, which gives rise to an $\epsilon$ -biased sample space via the connection mentioned above.
Concatenating Algebraic geometric codes with the Hadamard code gives an $\epsilon$ -balanced code with $\displaystyle s=O\left({\frac {n}{\epsilon ^{3}\log(1/\epsilon )}}\right)$ .^[2]
Ben-Aroya & Ta-Shma (2009) achieves $\displaystyle s=O\left({\frac {n}{\epsilon ^{2}\log(1/\epsilon )}}\right)^{5/4}$ .
Ta-Shma (2017) achieves $\displaystyle s=O\left({\frac {n}{\epsilon ^{2+o(1)}}}\right)$ which is almost optimal because of the lower bound.

These bounds are mutually incomparable. In particular, none of these constructions yields the smallest $\epsilon$ -biased sets for all settings of $\epsilon$ and $n$ .

Application: almost k-wise independence

An important application of small-bias sets lies in the construction of almost k-wise independent sample spaces.

k-wise independent spaces

A random variable $Y$ over $\{0,1\}^{n}$ is a k-wise independent space if, for all index sets $I\subseteq \{1,\dots ,n\}$ of size $k$ , the marginal distribution $Y|_{I}$ is exactly equal to the uniform distribution over $\{0,1\}^{k}$ . That is, for all such $I$ and all strings $z\in \{0,1\}^{k}$ , the distribution $Y$ satisfies $\Pr _{Y}(Y|_{I}=z)=2^{-k}$ .

Constructions and bounds

k-wise independent spaces are fairly well understood.

A simple construction by Joffe (1974) achieves size $n^{k}$ .
Alon, Babai & Itai (1986) construct a k-wise independent space whose size is $n^{k/2}$ .
Chor et al. (1985) prove that no k-wise independent space can be significantly smaller than $n^{k/2}$ .

Joffe's construction

Joffe (1974) constructs a $k$ -wise independent space $Y$ over the finite field with some prime number $n>k$ of elements, i.e., $Y$ is a distribution over $\mathbb {F} _{n}^{n}$ . The initial $k$ marginals of the distribution are drawn independently and uniformly at random:

(Y_{0},\dots ,Y_{k-1})\sim \mathbb {F} _{n}^{k}

.

For each $i$ with $k\leq i<n$ , the marginal distribution of $Y_{i}$ is then defined as

Y_{i}=Y_{0}+Y_{1}\cdot i+Y_{2}\cdot i^{2}+\dots +Y_{k-1}\cdot i^{k-1}\,,

where the calculation is done in $\mathbb {F} _{n}$ . Joffe (1974) proves that the distribution $Y$ constructed in this way is $k$ -wise independent as a distribution over $\mathbb {F} _{n}^{n}$ . The distribution $Y$ is uniform on its support, and hence, the support of $Y$ forms a $k$ -wise independent set. It contains all $n^{k}$ strings in $\mathbb {F} _{n}^{k}$ that have been extended to strings of length $n$ using the deterministic rule above.

Almost k-wise independent spaces

A random variable $Y$ over $\{0,1\}^{n}$ is a $\delta$ -almost k-wise independent space if, for all index sets $I\subseteq \{1,\dots ,n\}$ of size $k$ , the restricted distribution $Y|_{I}$ and the uniform distribution $U_{k}$ on $\{0,1\}^{k}$ are $\delta$ -close in 1-norm, i.e., ${\Big \|}Y|_{I}-U_{k}{\Big \|}_{1}\leq \delta$ .

Constructions

Naor & Naor (1990) give a general framework for combining small k-wise independent spaces with small $\epsilon$ -biased spaces to obtain $\delta$ -almost k-wise independent spaces of even smaller size. In particular, let $G_{1}:\{0,1\}^{h}\to \{0,1\}^{n}$ be a linear mapping that generates a k-wise independent space and let $G_{2}:\{0,1\}^{\ell }\to \{0,1\}^{h}$ be a generator of an $\epsilon$ -biased set over $\{0,1\}^{h}$ . That is, when given a uniformly random input, the output of $G_{1}$ is a k-wise independent space, and the output of $G_{2}$ is $\epsilon$ -biased. Then $G:\{0,1\}^{\ell }\to \{0,1\}^{n}$ with $G(x)=G_{1}(G_{2}(x))$ is a generator of an $\delta$ -almost $k$ -wise independent space, where $\delta =2^{k/2}\epsilon$ .^[3]

As mentioned above, Alon, Babai & Itai (1986) construct a generator $G_{1}$ with $h={\tfrac {k}{2}}\log n$ , and Naor & Naor (1990) construct a generator $G_{2}$ with $\ell =\log s=\log h+O(\log(\epsilon ^{-1}))$ . Hence, the concatenation $G$ of $G_{1}$ and $G_{2}$ has seed length $\ell =\log k+\log \log n+O(\log(\epsilon ^{-1}))$ . In order for $G$ to yield a $\delta$ -almost k-wise independent space, we need to set $\epsilon =\delta 2^{-k/2}$ , which leads to a seed length of $\ell =\log \log n+O(k+\log(\delta ^{-1}))$ and a sample space of total size $2^{\ell }\leq \log n\cdot {\text{poly}}(2^{k}\cdot \delta ^{-1})$ .

Notes

^ cf., e.g., Goldreich (2001)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d cf., e.g., p. 2 of Ben-Aroya & Ta-Shma (2009)
^ Section 4 in Naor & Naor (1990)

References

Alon, Noga; Babai, László; Itai, Alon (1986), "A fast and simple randomized parallel algorithm for the maximal independent set problem" (PDF), Journal of Algorithms, 7 (4): 567–583, doi:10.1016/0196-6774(86)90019-2
Alon, Noga; Goldreich, Oded; Håstad, Johan; Peralta, René (1992), "Simple Constructions of Almost k-wise Independent Random Variables" (PDF), Random Structures & Algorithms, 3 (3): 289–304, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.106.6442, doi:10.1002/rsa.3240030308
Ben-Aroya, Avraham; Ta-Shma, Amnon (2009). "Constructing Small-Bias Sets from Algebraic-Geometric Codes". 2009 50th Annual IEEE Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science (PDF). pp. 191–197. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.149.9273. doi:10.1109/FOCS.2009.44. ISBN 978-1-4244-5116-6.
Chor, Benny; Goldreich, Oded; Håstad, Johan; Freidmann, Joel; Rudich, Steven; Smolensky, Roman (1985). "The bit extraction problem or t-resilient functions". 26th Annual Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science (SFCS 1985). pp. 396–407. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.39.6768. doi:10.1109/SFCS.1985.55. ISBN 978-0-8186-0644-1. S2CID 6968065.
Goldreich, Oded (2001), Lecture 7: Small bias sample spaces
Joffe, Anatole (1974), "On a Set of Almost Deterministic k-Independent Random Variables", Annals of Probability, 2 (1): 161–162, doi:10.1214/aop/1176996762
Naor, Joseph; Naor, Moni (1990), "Small-bias probability spaces: Efficient constructions and applications", Proceedings of the twenty-second annual ACM symposium on Theory of computing - STOC '90, pp. 213–223, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.421.2784, doi:10.1145/100216.100244, ISBN 978-0897913614, S2CID 14031194
Ta-Shma, Amnon (2017), "Explicit, almost optimal, epsilon-balanced codes", Proceedings of the 49th Annual ACM SIGACT Symposium on Theory of Computing, pp. 238–251, doi:10.1145/3055399.3055408, ISBN 9781450345286, S2CID 5648543

[1] ., e.g., Goldreich (2001)

[BA-TS-09-2] ., e.g., p. 2 of Ben-Aroya & Ta-Shma (2009)

[3] Section 4 in Naor & Naor (1990)

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