Rajatarangini

Folio of a manuscript of the Rajatarangini by Kalhana, written in Sharada script
Author	Kalhana

Rājataraṅgiṇī (Sanskrit: राजतरङ्गिणी, romanized: rājataraṅgiṇī, IPA: [ɾɑː.d͡ʑɐ.t̪ɐˈɾɐŋ.ɡi.ɳiː], lit. 'The River of Kings') is a metrical legendary and historical chronicle of the north-western part of Indian sub-continent, particularly the kings of Kashmir. It was written in Sanskrit by Kashmiri historian Kalhana in the 12th century CE.^[1]

The total reign of the following kings is mentioned as 1266 years.^[2]

The Gonanda dynasty ruled Kashmir for 1002 years.^[2]

No kings mentioned in this book have been traced in any other historical source.^[10] These kings ruled Kashmir for 192 years.^[2]

Ruler	Reign[2]	Ascension year	Notes
Meghavahana	34 years	25 CE	Meghavahana was the son of Yudhisthira I's great-grandson, who had been granted asylum by Gopaditya, the king of Gandhara. Meghavahana had been selected the husband of a Vaishnavite princess at a Swayamvara in another kingdom. The ministers of Kashmir brought him to Kashmir after Sandhimati proved to be an unwilling king. Meghavahana banned animal slaughter and compensated those who earned their living through hunting. He patrnozed Brahmins, and set up a monastery. His queens built Buddhist viharas and monasteries. He subdued kings in regions as far as Sinhala Kingdom, forcing them to abandon animal slaughter.
Shreshtasena (Pravarasena I / Tungjina II)	30 years	59 CE	Son of Meghavahana
Hiranya and co-regent Toramana	30 years, 2 months	89 CE	Son of Shreshtasena, assisted by his brother and co-regent Toramana. The king imprisoned Toramana, when the latter stuck royal coins in his own name. Toramana's son Pravarasena, who had been brought up in secrecy by his mother Anjana, freed him. Hiranya died childless. Several coins of a king named Toramana have been found in the Kashmir region. This king is identified by some with Huna ruler Toramana, although his successor Mihirakula is placed much earlier by Kalhana.[10]
Matrigupta	4 years, 9 months, 1 day	120 CE	According to Kalhana, the emperor Vikramditya (alias Harsha) of Ujjayini defeated the Shakas, and made his friend and poet Matrigupta the ruler of Kashmir. After Vikramaditya's death, Matrigupta abdicated the throne in favour of Pravarasena. According to D. C. Sircar, Kalhana has confused the legendary Vikramaditya of Ujjain with the Vardhana Emperor Harsha (c. 606–47 CE).[12] The latter is identified with Shiladitya mentioned in Xuanzang's account. However, according to M. A. Stein, Kalhana's Vikramaditya is another Shiladitya mentioned in Xuanzang's account: a king of Malwa around 580 CE.[13]
Pravarasena II	60 years	125 CE	Historical evidence suggests that a king named Pravarasena ruled Kashmir in the 6th century CE.[10] According to Kalhana, Pravarasena subdued many other kings, in lands as far as Saurashtra. He restored the rule of Vikramaditya's son Pratapshila (alias Shiladitya), who had been expelled from Ujjain by his enemies. Pratapshila agreed to be a vassal of Pravarasena after initial resistance. He founded a city called Pravarapura, which is identified by later historians as the modern city of Srinagar on the basis topographical details.[14]
Yudhishthira II	39 years, 8 months	185 CE	Son of Pravarasena
Narendraditya I (Lakshmana)	13 years	206 CE	Son of Yudhishthira II and Padmavati
Ranaditya I (Tungjina III)	300 years	219 CE	Younger brother of Narendraditya. His queen Ranarambha was an incarnation of Bhramaravasini. The Chola king Ratisena had found her among the waves, during an ocean worship ritual.
Vikramaditya	42 years	519 CE	Son of Ranaditya
Baladitya	36 years, 8 months	561 CE	Younger brother of Vikramaditya. He subdued several enemies. An astrologer prophesied that his son-in-law would succeed him as the king. To avoid this outcome, the king married his daughter Anangalekha to Durlabhavardhana, a handsome but non-royal man from Ashvaghama Kayastha caste.

Ruler	Reign[2]	Ascension year	Notes
Durlabhavardhana (Prajnaditya)	38 years	598 CE	Born to Nāga Karkota (a deity), Durlabhavardhana was Baladitya's officer in charge of fodder. Baladitya married his daughter Anangalekha to him. As the royal son-in-law, he became known as a just and wise man, and was given the title "Prajnaditya" by the king. His wife Anangalekha became involved in an extra-marital affair with the minister Kharga. Despite catching them sleeping together, Durlabhavardhana forgave Khankha, and won over his loyalty. After Baladitya's death, Khankha crowned him the new king.
Durlabhaka (Pratapaditya II)	60 years	634 CE	Son of Durlabhavardhana and Anangalekha. He was adopted as a son by his maternal grandfather, and assumed the title Pratapaditya after the title of the grandfather's dynasty.
Chandrapida (Vajraditya I)	8 years, 8 months	694 CE	Son of Durlabhaka and Shrinarendraprabha.
Tarapida (Udayaditya)	4 years, 24 days	703 CE	Younger brother of Chandrapida.
Muktapida (Lalitaditya I)	36 years, 7 months, 11 days	703 CE	Younger brother of Chandrapida and Tarapida. According to the historical evidence, Lalitaditya Muktapida ruled during the 8th century. Kalhana states that Lalitaditya Muktapida conquered the tribes of the north and after defeating the Kambojas, he immediately faced the Tusharas. The Tusharas did not give a fight but fled to the mountain ranges leaving their horses in the battle field. Then Lalitaditiya meets the Bhauttas in Baltistan in western Tibet north of Kashmir, then the Daradas in Karakoram/Himalaya, the Valukambudhi and then he subdues Strirajya, the Uttar Kuru/Western China and the Pragjyotisha respectively (IV.165–175). According to some historians, Kalhana has highly exaggerated the military conquests of Muktapida.[16][17]
Kuvalayapida	1 year, 15 days	739 CE	Son of Lalitaditya and Kamaladevi. His short reign was marked by a succession struggle with his half-brother Vajraditya II. He abdicated the throne, and a became a hermit to seek peace.
Vajraditya II (Bappiyaka / Vappiyaka / Lalitaditya II)	7 years	746 CE	Son of Lalitaditya and Chakramardika. He was a cruel and immoral person, who introduced the evil habits of mlechchhas to Kashmir.
Prithivyapida I	4 years, 1 month	750 CE	Son of Vajraditya II and Mangjarika. Deposed by his half-brother Sangramapida.
Sangramapida I	7 days	750 CE	Son of Vajraditya II and Massa. Deposed his half-brother to become the king, but died after a week.
Jayapida (Vinayaditya); Jajja	31 years; 3 years	781 CE	Youngest son of Vajradjtya II. He erected a monument at Prayaga, which existed at Kalhana's time. His wife Kalyanadevi was the daughter of Jayanta, the king Pundravardhana in Gauda region. Jayapida subdued five kings of Gauda, and made them vassals of his father-in-law. On his way back to Kashmir, he also defeated the king of Kanyakubja. While Jayapida was in Gauda, his brother-in-law usurped the throne in Kashmir. After three years of ruling Kashmir, Jajja was killed by Shrideva, a supporter of Jayapida. Jayapida became the king once again, and patronized scholars. He waged wars against Bhimasena of the East and Aramuri of Nepala. In both instances, he was first imprisoned by the enemy king, but managed to escape and defeated the enemy. During the last years of his reign, he imposed excessive taxes on advice of Kayasthas, and treated his subjects cruelly. He died because of a curse by a Brahmin.
Lalitapida	12 years	793 CE	Son of Jayapida and Durgi. He devoted his time to sensual pleasures, and neglected royal duties.
Sangramapida II (Prithivyapida II)	7 years	805 CE	Son of Jayapida and Kalyana.
Chippatajayapida (Brhspati / Vrihaspati)	12 years	812 CE	Son of Lalitapida and his concubine Jayadevi. The actual power was in hands of Jayadevi's brothers Padma, Utpalaka, Kalyana, Mamma and Dharmma.
Ajitapida	37 years	830 CE	Son of Lalitapida and Jayadevi, made the king by his maternal uncle Utpalaka. Dethroned by Utpalaka's rival Mamma and the latter's son Yashovarman.
Anangapida	3 years	867 CE	Son of Sangramapida II. Made king by Mamma and Yashovarman.
Utpalapida	2 years	870 CE	Son of Ajitapida. Made king by Sukhavarman, the son of Utpala. Deposed by the minister Shura.

Ruler	Ascension year	Notes
Yashaskara-deva	939 CE	Elected by a council of Brahmins
Varnata	948 CE
Sangramadeva (Sanggrama I)	948 CE	Murdered by the divira (clerk or writer) Parvagupta, who had become a regent-minister
Parvagupta	948 CE	Strong but unpopular ruler
Kshemagupta	950 CE	Son of Parvagupta and husband of Didda (a member of the Lohara dynasty). Didda and/or her relatives ran the administration.
Abhimanyu II	958 CE	Ruled with his mother Didda as regent, aided by the minister Naravahana. Died young.
Nandigupta	972 CE	Didda's grandson, deposed by her
Tribhuvanagupta	973 CE	Didda's grandson, deposed by her
Bhimagupta	975 CE	Didda's grandson, deposed by her
Didda	980 CE	Wife of Kshemagupta After a young son of Yashaskara, Pravaragupta, a Divira (clerk), became king. His son Kshemagupta married Didda, daughter of Simharaja of Lohara. After ruling indirectly and directly, Didda (980–1003 CE) placed Samgrāmarāja, son of her brother on the throne, starting the Lohara dynasty.

Ruler	Reign[2]	Ascension year	Notes
Sangramaraja (Samgramaraja / Kshamapati)		1003 CE	Nephew of Didda. Ascended the throne after her death, beginning Lohara dynasty's rule over Kashmir
Hariraja	22 days	1028 CE
Ananta-deva		1028 CE	Abdicated the throne in favour of his son, but retained power through his minister Haladhara
Kalasha (Ranaditya II)		1063 CE	Rebelled against his parents, leading to the suicide of his father Ananta, followed by sati-suicide by his mother. His son Harsha revolted against him, and was imprisoned.
Utkarsha	22 days	1089 CE	Second son of Kalasha. His half-brother Vijaymalla rebelled against him, and got Harsha released from prison. Utkarsha was imprisoned and committed suicide
Harsha		died in 1101 CE	In his early years, he was a sagacious king, and a patron of art and literature. The later years of his reign were marked by unsuccessful military campaigns, resulting in excessive taxation and plundering of temples. Revolts by his generals Uchchala and Sussala (of Lohara family) ended his reign. His son Bhoja was killed, and Harsha himself was killed by Uchchala's men while hiding in a village.

Kalhana was an educated and sophisticated Sanskrit scholar, well-connected in the highest political circles. His writing is full of literary devices and allusions, concealed by his unique and elegant style.^[18]

Despite the value that historians have placed on Kalhana's work, there is little evidence of authenticity in the earlier books of Rajatarangini. For example, Ranaditya is given a reign of 300 years. Toramana is clearly the Huna king of that name, but his father Mihirakula is given a date 700 years earlier.^[19] Even where the kings mentioned in the first three books are historically attested, Kalhana's account suffers from chronological errors.^[20]

Kalhana's account starts to align with other historical evidence only by Book 4, which gives an account of the Karkota dynasty. But even this account is not fully reliable from a historical point of view. For example, Kalhana has highly exaggerated the military conquests of Lalitaditya Muktapida.^[16][17]

Rājataraṅgiṇī by Jonarāja

During the reign of Zain-ul-Abidin, Jonarāja authored a sequel by the same name. Also known as Dvitīyā Rājataraṅgiṇī ("second Rajatarangini"), it gives an account of Kashmir from c. 1148 CE to 1459 CE.^[21]

Jaina-Rājataraṅgiṇī by Śrīvara

After Jonarāja's death in 1459, his disciple Śrīvara Paṇḍita continued his work. He titled his work Jaina-Rājataraṅgiṇī, and it is also known as Tṛtīyā Rājataraṅgiṇī ("third Rājataraṅgiṇī"). It gives an account of Kashmir from 1451 CE to 1486 CE.^[22]

Rājāvalipatākā by Prājyabhaṭṭa

Prājyabhaṭṭa's Rājāvalipatākā gave an account of Kashmir from 1486 to 1513. His work is lost.^[23]

Caturthī Rājataraṅgiṇī by Śuka

Śuka continued Prājyabhaṭṭa's lost work, resulting in the Caturthī Rājataraṅgiṇī ("fourth Rājataraṅgiṇī"). It begins after the end of Bhaṭṭa Prājya’s Rājāvalipatākā in 1513, while Fatḥ Šāh was still exercising his second reign, and ends in 1597 with the construction of the Naganagarī city fort just before Emperor Akbar’s third visit to Śrīnagara.^[23]

A Persian translation of Rajatarangini was commissioned by Zain-ul-Abidin, who ruled Kashmir in the 15th century CE.

Horace Hayman Wilson partially translated the work, and wrote an essay based on it, titled The Hindu History of Kashmir (published in Asiatic Researches Volume 15). Subsequent English translations of Kalhana's Rajatarangini include:

• Rajatarangini: The Saga of the Kings of Kashmir by Ranjit Sitaram Pandit (The Indian Press, Allahabad; 1935)
• Kings of Kashmira (1879) by Jogesh Chandra Dutt
• Kalhana's Rajatarangini: a chronicle of the kings of Kaśmir by Marc Aurel Stein
• In the Guise of Poetry — Kalhaṇa Reconsidered. In: Śāstrārambha. Inquiries into the Preamble in Sanskrit. Edited by Walter Slaje. Preface by Edwin Gerow. (AKM 62). Wiesbaden 2008: 207–244.
• Slaje, Walter (2014). Kingship in Kaśmīr (AD 1148–1459). From the Pen of Jonarāja, Court Paṇḍit to Sulṭān Zayn al-'Ābidīn (PDF). Studia Indologica Universitatis Halensis. Vol. 7. University of Halle-Wittenberg. Critically Edited by Walter Slaje with an Annotated Translation, Indexes and Maps. [1]
• Slaje, Walter (2022). Kaschmir unter den Šāhmīrīden. Śrīvaras Jaina- und Rājataraṅgiṇī, A.D. 1451–1486. Studia Indologica Universitatis Halensis (in German). Vol. 20. University of Halle-Wittenberg. Four contemporary historical lives of rulers of an Indo-Persian sultanate. Newly published with annotated translation. [2]
• Slaje, Walter (2023). Kaschmir im 16. Jahrhundert. Vom unabhängigen Sultanat zur mogulischen Annexion (Śukas Rājataraṅgiṇī, A. D. 1513–1597) (PDF). Studia Indologica Universitatis Halensis (in German). Vol. 27. University of Halle-Wittenberg. Republished with an annotated translation. [3]

Translations in other languages include:

• Rajatarangini with Hindi commentary by Ramtej Shastri Pandey (Chaukhamba Sanskrit Pratishthan, 1985)
• Rajatarangini of Kalhana, edited by Vishwa Bandhu (1963–65); a later addition includes the texts of Jonaraja, Srivara and Suka (1966–67)
• Rajatarangini, Hindi translation by Pandit Gopi Krishna Shastri Dwivedi
• Histoire Des Rois Du Kachmir: Rajatarangini, French translation by M. Anthony Troyer
• Rajatarangini, Urdu translation by Pandit Thakar Acharchand Shahpuriah
• Rajatarangini, Telugu translation by Renduchintala Lakshmi Narasimha Sastry

Several books containing legendary stories from Rajatarangini have been compiled by various authors. These include:

• S.L. Sadhu's Tales from the Rajatarangini (1967)^[26]
• Devika Rangachari's Stories from Rajatarangini: Tales of Kashmir (2001)
• Anant Pai's Amar Chitra Katha series:
  • Chandrapeeda and other Tales of Kashmir (1984)
  • The Legend of Lalitaditya: Retold from Kalhana's Rajatarangini (1999)

A television series based on Rajatarangini named Meeras began in 1986 in Doordarshan, Srinagar.

• Chach Nama, similar treatise about Sindh

• Dutt, Jogesh Chandra (1879). Kings of Káshmíra. Trübner & Co.
• Stein, Marc Aurel (1979) [1900]. "Chronological and Dynastic Tables of Kalhana's Record of Kasmir Kings". Kalhana's Rajatarangini: A Chronicle of the Kings of Kasmir. Vol. 1. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0368-8.
• Sharma, Tej Ram (2005). Historiography: A History of Historical Writing. Concept. ISBN 978-81-8069-155-3.
• Hasan, Mohibbul (1959). Kashmir Under the Sultans. Aakar. ISBN 9788187879497.
• Guruge, Ananda (1994). Nuradha Seneviratna (ed.). King Asoka and Buddhism: Historical and Literary Studies. Buddhist Publication Society. ISBN 978-955-24-0065-0.
• Chadurah, Haidar Malik (1991). History of Kashmir. Bhavna Prakashan.
• Stein, Marc Aurel (1989). Kalhana's Rajatarangini: a chronicle of the kings of Kasmir. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0370-1.
• Raina, Mohini Qasba (2013). Kashur The Kashmiri Speaking People. Partridge. ISBN 9781482899450.
• Lahiri, Nayanjot (2015). Ashoka in Ancient India. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-91525-1.
• Prithivi Nath Kaul Bamzai (1994). Culture and Political History of Kashmir: Medieval Kashmir. ISBN 9788185880310.

• Rajatarangini of Kalhana – English translation by Jogesh Chunder Dutt
• Rajatarangini: The Saga of The Kings of Kasmir – English translation by Ranjit Sitaram Pandit
• Rajatarangini and the Making of India's Past – Webcast of a talk by Chitralekha Zutshi