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Luna programme

For the second programme, see Luna-Glob.

Luna space programme
Луна Космическая Программа
Luna Kosmicheskaya Programma
Locations of Luna landings on the Moon are marked in red; Apollo missions in green, and Surveyor in yellow.
Program overview
CountrySoviet Union
PurposeUncrewed exploration of the Moon
StatusOperational
Programme history
Duration1958–1976
First flight
Last flight
Successes15
Failures28
Partial failures1
Launch site(s)Baikonur Cosmodrome
Vehicle information
Launch vehicle(s)

The Luna programme (from the Russian word Луна "Luna" meaning "Moon"), occasionally called Lunik by western media,[1] was a series of robotic spacecraft missions sent to the Moon by the Soviet Union between 1959 and 1976. The programme accomplished many firsts in space exploration, including first flyby of the Moon, first impact of the Moon and first photos of the far side of the Moon. Each mission was designed as either an orbiter or lander. They also performed many experiments, studying the Moon's chemical composition, gravity, temperature, and radiation.

Twenty-four spacecraft were formally given the Luna designation, although more were launched. Those that failed to reach orbit were not publicly acknowledged at the time, and not assigned a Luna number. Those that failed in low Earth orbit were usually given Cosmos designations.[2] The estimated cost of the Luna programme in 1964 was US$6–10 billion[3] (equivalent to US$45–75 billion in 2023[4]). The Luna 25 mission also continues the Luna designation, although it is considered to be a part of the Luna-Glob exploration programme.[5] The same applies to other planned missions such as Luna 26, Luna 27 and Luna 28.

Mission types

The name Luna was used to designate a variety of spacecraft designs, to achieve several types of missions:

Impactors

Main article: Lander (spacecraft) § Impactors
Luna 1 impactor

Impactor spacecraft had the generic designation of Ye-1 (or E-1 depending on transliteration from Russian) and were designed to hit the near side of the Moon.[6][7] Luna 1 (January 1959) missed its intended impact with the Moon and became the first spacecraft to escape the Earth-Moon system.[8] Luna 2 (September 1959) mission successfully hit the Moon's surface, becoming the first man-made object to reach the Moon.[9] This was Luna's only impact success out of six tries from September 1958 to September 1959.

Flybys

Luna 3 flyby spacecraft model

A flyby is the simplest lunar spacecraft, requiring neither a propulsion device for slowing, nor a guidance system sensitive enough to hit the Moon. Flyby spacecraft had the generic designations of Ye-2 and Ye-3 (E-2 and E-3 depending on transliteration from Russian).[10][11] Their function was to transmit photographs back to Earth. Luna 3 (October 1959) rounded the Moon later that year, and returned the first photographs of its far side, which can never be seen from Earth.[9] This was Luna's only successful flyby, out of three tries from October 1959 to April 1960.

Soft landers

Main article: Soft landing (aeronautics)
Luna 9 lander model

Soft landers require rocket propulsion to slow their speed sufficiently to prevent the craft's destruction. They can continue to transmit pictures from the surface, and possibly dig into the lunar soil or return other information about the lunar environment.

Luna program landers had the generic designations of Ye-6 or Ye-6M (E-6 or E-6M depending on transliteration from Russian).[12][13] Two successful soft landings were achieved out of thirteen attempts from January 1963 to December 1966.[12][13]

Luna 9 (E-6 No.13) became the first probe to achieve a soft landing on another planetary body in February 1966. It transmitted five black and white stereoscopic circular panoramas, which were the first close-up shots of the lunar surface.[8]

Orbiters

Luna 10 orbiter model

Orbiter spacecraft require less thrust and propellant than landers, but still require enough to achieve lunar orbit insertion. Luna 10 (March 1966) became the first artificial satellite of the Moon.[9] Luna program orbiters had the generic designations of Ye-6LF, Ye-6LS, Ye-6S or Ye-8LS (E-6, E-6LS, E-6S or E-8LS depending on transliteration from Russian).[14][15][16][17] Luna flew six successful orbiters out of eight attempts from March 1966 to May 1974.[14][15][16][17]

Rovers

Main article: Lunokhod programme
Luna 17 lander with Lunokhod 1 rover payload

More sophisticated soft lander craft can deploy wheeled vehicles to explore a wider area of the lunar surface than the immediate landing site. Luna program landers with rovers had the generic designations of Ye-8 (E-8 depending on transliteration from Russian).[18]

The first attempted Lunokhod failed in February 1969. Luna 17 (November 1970) and Luna 21 (January 1973) carried Lunokhod vehicles, which were the first robotic wheeled vehicles to explore the Moon's terrain.[9] Lunokhod 1 travelled 10.5 kilometres (6.5 mi) in 322 days and returned more than 20,000 television images and 206 high-resolution panoramas.[19] Lunokhod 2 operated for about four months, and covered 42 kilometres (26 mi) of terrain,[20] A third Lunokhod was built and intended for launch in 1977, but never flew due to lack of launchers and funding.[21]

Sample return

Main article: Sample return mission
Luna 16 sample return lander model

More complex soft lander craft can robotically scoop up a small amount of lunar material, lift off from the surface, and return the material to Earth. Luna program sample return landers had the generic designations of Ye-8-5 or Ye-8-5M (E-8-5 or E-8-5M depending on transliteration from Russian).[22][23]

Luna 16 (September 1970), Luna 20 (February 1972) and Luna 24 (August 1976), returned samples of lunar soil to Earth.[9][22][23] A total of 301 g (10.6 oz) of soil sample was returned from the three missions.

Luna 15 (July 1969) flew at the same time as the Apollo 11 mission. Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin had already performed the first crewed lunar landing when Luna 15 began its descent, and the spacecraft crashed into a mountain minutes later.

Mission success rates

While the programme was active, it was Soviet practice not to release any details of missions that had failed to achieve orbit. This resulted in Western observers assigning their own designations to the missions. For example, Luna E-1 No.1, the first failure of 1958 which NASA believed was associated with the Luna programme, was known as Luna 1958A.[24]

Luna Competing United States programmes
Type First attempt Attempts First success Successes Rate First attempt Attempts First success Successes Rate
Impactor 23 Sep 1958 6 Luna 2
Sep 13, 1959		 1 16.7% Ranger 1
23 Aug 1961		 9 Ranger 7
31 July 1964		 3 33.3%[25]
Flyby Luna 3
6 Oct 1959		 3 Luna 3 1 33.3% Pioneer 3
6 Dec 1958		 2 Pioneer 4
6 Mar 1959		 1 50.0%
Soft lander 4 Jan 1963 13 Luna 9
3 Feb 1966		 2 15.4% Surveyor 1
2 Jun 1966		 7 Surveyor 1 5 71.4%
Orbiter 1 Mar 1966 8 Luna 10
3 Apr 1966		 6 75.0% Pioneer 0
17 Aug 1958		 12 Lunar Orbiter 1
18 Aug 1966		 5 41.7%
Rover 19 Feb 1969 3 Luna 17
17 Nov 1970		 2 66.7% Apollo 15
31 July 1971		 3 Apollo 15 3 100.0%
Sample return 14 Jun 1969 11 Luna 16
24 Sep, 1970		 3 27.3% Apollo 11
24 Jul 1969		 7 Apollo 11 6 85.7%
Total 44 15 34.1% Total 40 24 60.0%

Mission details

Public name Internal name Photo Mission Launch date Carrier rocket Outcome Remarks
N/A E-1 No.1 Impactor 23 September 1958 Luna Launch failure Failed to orbit
N/A E-1 No.2 Impactor 11 October 1958 Luna Launch failure Failed to orbit
N/A E-1 No.3 Impactor 4 December 1958 Luna Launch failure Failed to orbit
Luna 1 E-1 No.4
Impactor 2 January 1959 Luna Launch failure Also known as Mechta; placed onto incorrect trajectory, flew past the Moon without impacting; first spacecraft to escape geocentric orbit
N/A E-1A No.1 Impactor 18 June 1959 Luna Launch failure Failed to orbit
Luna 2 E-1A No.2
Impactor 12 September 1959 Luna Successful Impacted Palus Putredinis (29.10 N, 0.00 E) on the Moon on 14 September 1959 at ~07:30 GMT. First man-made object to reach the Moon.
Luna 3 E-2A No.1
Flyby 4 October 1959 Luna Successful Took first photographs of the far side of the Moon.
N/A E-3 No.1
Flyby 15 April 1960 Luna Launch failure Failed to orbit
N/A E-3 No.2
Flyby 16 April 1960 Luna Launch failure Failed to orbit
N/A E-6 No.2
Lander 4 January 1963 Molniya-L Launch failure Never left LEO
N/A E-6 No.3
Lander 3 February 1963 Molniya-L Launch failure Failed to orbit
Luna 4 E-6 No.4
Lander 2 April 1963 Molniya-L Spacecraft failure Failed to perform course correction manoeuvre; flew past the Moon
N/A E-6 No.6
Lander 21 March 1964 Molniya-M Launch failure Failed to orbit
N/A E-6 No.5
Lander 20 April 1964 Molniya-M Launch failure Failed to orbit
Kosmos 60 E-6 No.9
Lander 12 March 1965 Molniya-L Launch failure Never left LEO, decayed five days later
N/A E-6 No.8
Lander 10 April 1965 Molniya-L Launch failure Failed to orbit
Luna 5 E-6 No.10
Lander 9 May 1965 Molniya-M Spacecraft failure Failed to decelerate; impacted Mare Nubium
Luna 6 E-6 No.7
Lander 8 June 1965 Molniya-M Spacecraft failure Failed to perform course correction manoeuvre; flew past the Moon
Luna 7 E-6 No.11
Lander 4 October 1965 Molniya Spacecraft failure Attitude control failure; impacted Oceanus Procellarum
Luna 8 E-6 No.12
Lander 3 December 1965 Molniya Spacecraft failure Attitude control failure; impacted Oceanus Procellarum
Luna 9 E-6 No.13
Lander 31 January 1966 Molniya-M Successful Landed in Oceanus Procellarum (7.08 N, 295.63 E) 18:44:52 GMT on 3 February 1966. First soft landing on the Moon.
Kosmos 111 E-6S No.204
Orbiter 1 March 1966 Molniya-M Launch failure Never left LEO, decayed two days later
Luna 10 E-6S No.206
Orbiter 31 March 1966 Molniya-M Successful
Luna 11 E-6LF No.101 Orbiter 24 August 1966 Molniya-M Successful
Luna 12 E-6LF No.102 Orbiter 22 October 1966 Molniya-M Successful
Luna 13 E-6M No.205
Lander 21 December 1966 Molniya-M Successful Landed in Oceanus Procellarum (18.87 N, 297.95 E) 18:01 GMT on 24 December 1966
N/A E-6LS No.112 Orbiter 7 February 1968 Molniya-M Launch failure Failed to orbit
Luna 14 E-6LS No.113 Orbiter 7 April 1968 Molniya-M Successful
N/A E-8 No.201 Rover 19 February 1969 Proton-K/D Launch failure First attempt to launch Lunokhod. Failed to orbit, Lunokhod destroyed.
N/A E-8-5 No.402 Sample return 14 June 1969 Proton-K/D Launch failure Failed to orbit
Luna 15 E-8-5 No.401 Sample return 13 July 1969 Proton-K/D Spacecraft failure Entered selenocentric orbit successfully, failed during descent on 21 July 1969; impacted the Moon while Apollo 11 was on the surface
Kosmos 300 E-8-5 No.403 Sample return 23 September 1969 Proton-K/D Launch failure Never left LEO, decayed four days later
Kosmos 305 E-8-5 No.404 Sample return 22 October 1969 Proton-K/D Launch failure Never left LEO, decayed two days later
N/A E-8-5 No.405 Sample return 6 February 1970 Proton-K/D Launch failure Failed to orbit
Luna 16 E-8-5 No.406
Sample return 12 September 1970 Proton-K/D Successful Landed in Mare Fecunditatis (0.68 S, 56.30 E) at 05:18 GMT on 20 September 1970. Sample returned to Earth on 24 September 1970
Luna 17 E-8 No.203
Rover 10 November 1970 Proton-K/D Successful Landed in Mare Imbrium (38.28 N, 325.00 E) at 03:47 GMT on 17 November 1970. Deployed Lunokhod 1
Luna 18 E-8-5 No.407 Sample return 2 September 1971 Proton-K/D Spacecraft failure Entered selenocentric orbit successfully, failed during descent; impacted Mare Fecunditatis (3.57 N, 50.50 E)
Luna 19 E-8LS No.202 Orbiter 28 September 1971 Proton-K/D Successful
Luna 20 E-8-5 No.408 Sample return 14 February 1972 Proton-K/D Successful Landed in Mare Fecunditatis (3.57 N, 56.50 E) at 19:19 UTC on 21 February 1972. Sample returned to Earth on 25 February 1972
Luna 21 E-8 No.204
Rover 8 January 1973 Proton-K/D Successful Landed in Le Monnier (25.85 N, 30.45 E) at 23:35 UTC on 15 January 1973. Deployed Lunokhod 2
Luna 22 E-8LS No.206 Orbiter 29 May 1974 Proton-K/D Successful
Luna 23 E-8-5M No.410
Sample return 28 October 1974 Proton-K/D Spacecraft failure Landed in Mare Crisium, fell over upon landing
N/A E-8-5M No.412 Sample return 16 October 1975 Proton-K/D Launch failure Failed to orbit, intended to return a sample from Mare Crisium
Luna 24 E-8-5M No.413
Sample return 9 August 1976 Proton-K/D Successful Landed in Mare Crisium (12.25 N, 62.20 E) at 02:00 UTC on 18 August 1976. Sample returned to Earth on 22 August 1976

See also

References

  1. ^ Amy Shira Teitel (13 April 2017). "How Russia Beat the U.S. to the Moon". Daily Beast. Retrieved 14 March 2023.
  2. ^ Zak, Anatoly. "Planetary Spacecraft – Moon Missions". RussianSpaceWeb.com.
  3. ^ "Comparison of US and Estimated Soviet Expenditures for Space Programs" (PDF). CIA. August 1964. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 January 2017.
  4. ^ Johnston, Louis; Williamson, Samuel H. (2023). "What Was the U.S. GDP Then?". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved 30 November 2023. United States Gross Domestic Product deflator figures follow the MeasuringWorth series.
  5. ^ "Luna-Glob mission lifts off". www.russianspaceweb.com. Retrieved 14 September 2023.
  6. ^ "Luna Ye-1". Gunter's Space Page. Retrieved 26 September 2023.
  7. ^ "Luna Ye-1A". Gunter's Space Page. Retrieved 26 September 2023.
  8. ^ a b Siddiqi, Asif A. (2018). Beyond Earth: A Chronicle of Deep Space Exploration, 1958–2016 (PDF). The NASA history series (second ed.). Washington, D.C.: NASA History Program Office. p. 1. ISBN 9781626830424. LCCN 2017059404. SP2018-4041.
  9. ^ a b c d e Siddiqi, Asif A. (2018). Beyond Earth: A Chronicle of Deep Space Exploration, 1958–2016 (PDF). The NASA history series (second ed.). Washington, D.C.: NASA History Program Office. p. 2. ISBN 9781626830424. LCCN 2017059404. SP2018-4041.
  10. ^ "Luna Ye-2A". Gunter's Space Page. Retrieved 26 September 2023.
  11. ^ "Luna Ye-3". Gunter's Space Page. Retrieved 26 September 2023.
  12. ^ a b "Luna Ye-6". Gunter's Space Page. Retrieved 26 September 2023.
  13. ^ a b "Luna Ye-6M". Gunter's Space Page. Retrieved 26 September 2023.
  14. ^ a b "Luna Ye-6LF". Gunter's Space Page. Retrieved 26 September 2023.
  15. ^ a b "Luna Ye-6LS". Gunter's Space Page. Retrieved 26 September 2023.
  16. ^ a b "Luna Ye-6S". Gunter's Space Page. Retrieved 26 September 2023.
  17. ^ a b "Luna Ye-8LS (Luna 19, 22)". Gunter's Space Page. Retrieved 26 September 2023.
  18. ^ "Luna Ye-8 (Luna 17, 21 / Lunokhod 1, 2)". Gunter's Space Page. Retrieved 26 September 2023.
  19. ^ "Lunokhod 1 Panoramas". planetology.ru. Retrieved 30 April 2013.
  20. ^ Wall, Mike (11 July 2013). "NASA Moon Probe Helps Revise Off-Planet Driving Record | Lunokhod 2". Space.com. Retrieved 12 July 2013.
  21. ^ Chaikin, Andy (February–March 2004). "The Other Moon Landings". Air & Space. Archived from the original on 11 May 2014.
  22. ^ a b "Luna Ye-8-5 (Luna 15, 16, 18, 20)". Gunter's Space Page. Retrieved 26 September 2023.
  23. ^ a b "Luna Ye-8-5M (Luna 23, 24)". Gunter's Space Page. Retrieved 26 September 2023.
  24. ^ Williams, David R. "Tentative IDs". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Retrieved 3 August 2010.
  25. ^ "National Space Science Data Center - Ranger 6". National Air and Space Administration. Retrieved 19 June 2012.
Quelle: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luna_program