Huang Xianfan
Huang Xianfan graduation photo
Born	Gan Jinying (甘錦英/甘锦英) (1899-11-13)13 November 1899 Fusui, China
Died	18 January 1982(1982-01-18) (aged 82) Guilin, China
Resting place	Guangxi Government Cemetery
Nationality	People's Republic of China
Education	Beijing Normal University(1926–1935) and Tokyo Imperial University (1935–1937)
Occupation(s)	Representatives of the National People's Congress (NPC), Members of the CPPCC National Committee
Years active	1954–1958, 1980–1982
Known for	The father of Zhuang studies (壮学之父) and The leaders of Bagui and Wunu School (八桂学派和无奴学派领袖)
Political party	Chinese Peasants' and Workers' Democratic Party
Spouse	Liu Lihua (刘丽华, Teacher)
Children	9
Website	China University Humanities and Social Sciences Information Network

Huang Xianfan (zhuang: Vangz Yenfanh; simplified Chinese: 黄现璠; traditional Chinese: 黄現璠; pinyin: Huáng Xiànfán; Wade–Giles: Huáng Hsiènfán) (November 13, 1899 – January 18, 1982) was a Zhuang Chinese historian, ethnologist and educator. Huang is considered one of the founders of modern Chinese ethnology.^[1][2][3]

He dedicated five decades of his life to the study of history and ethnology, his research encompassing a vast range of fields, including Chinese general history, pre-Qin history,medieval history, social and living history, cultural history, ethnology, linguistics, and Zhuang studies.His magnum opus, "A General Outline of Tang Dynasty Society," is widely hailed as the first comprehensive study of Tang dynasty social history in the 20th century. Similarly, his "National Salvation Movement of the Students of the Imperial Academy during the Song Dynasty" is recognized as the pioneering monograph on the history of student movements in China.^[4][5] His works,"A Brief History of the Zhuang Ethnic Group in Guangxi" and"A General History of the Zhuang Ethnic Group "are widely regarded as groundbreaking contributions to the historical and cultural studies of the Zhuang people.^[6][7][8] His seminal work, "China's History Did Not Have a Slave Society," stands as a landmark challenge within 20th-century Chinese academia to the notion of a slave society in Chinese history. Furthermore, his essay, "On the Construction of 'Chinese Life Studies,'" provides a crucial framework for establishing this new academic discipline. His pioneering theories, including the "Indigenous Origin of the Zhuang People in Guangxi" and "The Justification of Nong Zhigao's Rebellion Against the Song Dynasty," have become cornerstones for subsequent scholars and are now widely accepted as definitive interpretations.^{[9][10][11][12]}

His commitment to education spanned almost fifty years at the university. In his later years, he established the Lijiang Adult University, fostering a vast network of students and leaving an enduring mark on the field and The "Bagui School" he created is the first school of ethnic studies in China.^[13][14]

Huang Xianfan was born on 13 November 1899 in the town of Qujiu in Fusui County, Guangxi province, Qing dynasty. His original name was Gan Jinying, and he was later renamed Huang Xianfan after the Huang family adopted him.^[15][16]

His uncle, recognizing Huang's intellectual promise, encouraged the family to steer him towards scholarly pursuits. However, Huang's father, a strict disciplinarian, insisted on a traditional education grounded in the Confucian classics. At the age of nine, Huang began his studies, diligently poring over texts like the Four Books and Five Classics, with the goal of eventually taking the Imperial Examination.^[17] However, as a teenager, he grew dissatisfied with the scholastic system of his time, particularly its emphasis on writing eight-legged essays. Huang later admitted that he didn't enjoy the Confucian classics, favouring instead history books such as Records of the Grand Historian. At fourteen, he began attending Qusi Primary School. At eighteen, Huang moved to a higher primary school in nearby Quli , where he was bullied because he came from a peasant background.^[18]

In 1922, he enrolled in Guangxi Third Normal College. Four years later, he furthered his studies at Beijing Normal University, where he had the privilege of being taught by renowned scholars Chen Yuan and Qian Xuantong. Over the next nine years, he thrived in this intellectually stimulating environment, completing his diploma, bachelor's, and postgraduate degrees. During this time, he distinguished himself through a series of academic papers , covering a wide range of topics, from ancient history and Chinese society to politics, economics, culture, religion, and folk customs. He also dedicated himself to translating historical works from various countries into Chinese, further expanding his knowledge While studying at Beijing Normal University, Huang also lectured on language and history at a private high school in Beijing. In 1932, he and his students founded Beilei Xueshe (蓓蕾學社), an academic group that also served as a publishing house, producing academic books.^[19] Three years later, he traveled to Japan to further his studies, enrolling in the graduate school of Tokyo Imperial University (東京帝国大学大学院). There, he received instruction from renowned historians Sei Wada (和田清) and Katou Shigeru (加藤繁, Katō Shigeru).^[20][21]

In November 1937 he returned to China, began his teaching career at Guangxi University. Over the years, he held professorships at several institutions, including Guangxi University, Sun Yat-sen University, and Guilin Normal College, becoming the first university professor of Zhuang ethnicity in China^{[22][23] [24]}and first university professor of Chongzuo city. Throughout his academic career, he taught a variety of courses, such as "Chinese History," "Ancient History," "Periodization of Chinese History," "History of Chinese Culture," "Historical Documents," and "Historical Materialism." In addition to his teaching duties, Huang took on various administrative roles at Guangxi University, serving as Dean of Student Affairs, Head of the Chinese Department, and Director of the University Library.Furthermore, he held a concurrent position as a researcher at the Guangxi Institute of Education.^[25][26] During the readjustment of institutions of higher learning in China in the early 1950s, Huang Xianfan was transferred to Guangxi Normal College (now Guangxi Normal University), where he served as a professor of history and concurrently as the director of the library. He remained a lifelong professor at the university.^{[27][28][29][30]}

Huang Xianfan made a significant contribution to anthropology by developing a new fieldwork methodology. This approach emerged from his extensive fieldwork in China's southwestern provinces. In August 1943, he organized the "Qian-Gui Border Region Survey Team," leading over ten students from Sun Yat-sen University to investigate the social and historical conditions of ethnic minorities in the Qian-Gui border region. Their research took them to counties such as Yining (present-day Jingxi), Longsheng, and Sanjiang in Guangxi Province. This initial survey proved foundational to his later work.Two years later, Huang undertook two more intensive research trips to ethnic minority regions. The first involved leading students from Guangxi University as part of the "Southern Qian Border People Survey Group." Their focus was on the Zhuang, Dong, Miao, Shui, and Yao communities in the Dayou Township area of Rongjiang, Guizhou Province, with a particular emphasis on the culture, daily life, customs, and marriage practices of the Miao people. The second trip, undertaken with his student Zhang Shouqi, consisted of research in ethnic minority settlements near Rong County (now Rong'an County).^[31][32]

These three surveys, conducted over nearly a year, explored diverse facets of ethnic minority life in the Qian-Gui border region, encompassing areas such as lifestyle, education, governance, and marriage customs. This period proved pivotal in Huang's development as a scholar, as he immersed himself in studying Miao social organization and education, alongside the languages and cultures of the Yao and Dong peoples. His methodological approach was groundbreaking, combining participant observation, in-depth interviews, and comparative analysis to foster a richer, more nuanced understanding of these communities. This innovative approach not only strengthened the rigor of his own research but also offered invaluable insights for future scholars in the field.These extensive fieldwork expeditions provided the foundation for several key publications, including "Notes on the Education of Border Peoples in Qian-Gui" and "Democratic Politics in the Social Organizations of Qian-Gui Border Peoples." These works not only presented his research findings in detail but also became influential texts, offering valuable methodological insights for subsequent anthropological and ethnological research in China's border regions.^[33]

Following his innovative methodology, Huang Xianfan continued to expand his field research in the subsequent years. In June 1951, he joined the Central Ethnic Work Group led by Fei Xiaotong and served as the deputy leader of the Guangxi sub-group, conducting surveys and providing visits in the ethnic minority regions of Guangxi. In the spring of 1952, Huang led his students to conduct investigations in Du'an, Donglan, and Nandan. That summer, he conducted field studies in Fusui, Chongzuo, Debao, and Jingxi.These expeditions had a dual purpose: to develop a deeper understanding of the history and contemporary lives of the Yao and Zhuang peoples, and to assemble a substantial archive of historical artifacts. These artifacts, held by indigenous clan heads and community elders, included materials related to significant historical events, such as Nong Zhigao's uprising and the anti-Qing movements led by Wu Lingyun and his son.^[34] Drawing on these surveys, Huang Xianfan compiled a report: 'An Overview of the Distribution of Zhuang People in Guixi and the Historical and Policy Basis for Proposing the Establishment of a Zhuang Autonomous Region in Guixi'. The central government considered this proposal and approved the establishment of the Zhuang Autonomous Region of Western Guixi in December 1952.【^[35]

In June 1953, Huang Xianfan established the Historical and Cultural Relics Survey Team under the Cultural and Educational Bureau of the Guixi Zhuang Autonomous Region People's Government at Guangxi University. He led the team to conduct investigations in Nandan, Tian'e, Hechi, Luocheng, and Yicheng.In June 1953, Huang Xianfan established the Historical and Cultural Relics Survey Team under the Cultural and Educational Bureau of the Guixi Zhuang Autonomous Region People's Government at Guangxi University. He led the team to conduct investigations in Nandan, Tian'e, Hechi, Luocheng, and Yicheng.Between 1951 and 1953, Huang conducted extensive fieldwork on the Zhuang, Dong, Yao, Miao, Shui, Qin, Li, and Gelao ethnic groups in Guangxi, gathering a wealth of invaluable material on their cultures and traditions. Of particular note, he pioneered research on the Gelao people in Luocheng, Guangxi, a relatively isolated and economically disadvantaged group with minimal outside contact. His work provided unique insights into a culture lacking a written tradition. ^[36][37]

Huang consolidated the vast amount of first-hand information he collected into the "Investigation Report on the Situation of Ethnic Minorities in Luocheng and Hechi Counties," which he submitted to the People's Government of the Guixi Zhuang Autonomous Region. This report served as an important reference for the development plans of the economy, culture, and education for various ethnic minorities in the Guixi Zhuang Autonomous Region.Huang Xianfan's scholarship forged new paths in the study of ethnic minorities in China. His innovative methodologies and groundbreaking findings had a lasting impact on the development of Chinese ethnology and anthropology. His remarkable contributions have cemented his legacy as a true pioneer of modern ethnic minority fieldwork in China.^[38][33]

In 1956, following the instructions given by Peng Zhen, Vice Chairman of the National People's Congress, at a meeting on March 31, the NPC Ethnic Affairs Committee adopted a resolution on April 19 titled "Preliminary Plan for Conducting Research on the Social and Historical Conditions of Various Ethnic Groups in Minority Areas." The plan proposed establishing social and historical research groups for ethnic minorities in the following regions: Yunnan (led by Fei Xiaotong and Liu Guanying), Sichuan (led by Xia Kangnong), Northwest (led by Feng Jiasheng), Guizhou (led by Wu Zelin), Guangdong (including Hainan Island, led by Cen Jiawu), Guangxi (with Huang Xianfan serving as deputy leader), Tibet (led by the Tibet Working Committee), Inner Mongolia, and Northeast regions.^[39]

The implementation of this research plan proved crucial to China's ethnic identification process. Prior to this, the State Council had already undertaken the first phase of ethnic identification, preliminarily identifying 38 ethnic minority groups,^[40] including the Zhuang. To gain a deeper understanding of the social and historical conditions of each ethnic group, this research plan was put into action. Scholars of anthropology and ethnology, including Fei Xiaotong, Huang Xianfan, and Xia Kangnong, who were members of the National People's Congress's Ethnic Affairs Committee, actively participated in this endeavor. They conducted extensive fieldwork and academic research in ethnic minority regions, providing essential evidence for the final identification and confirmation of each ethnic group. Their research findings not only enriched the development of ethnology as a discipline in China but also laid a solid foundation for formulating ethnic policies and building a framework for ethnic relations, the influence of which continues to this day.^[41]

That August, Professor Huang helped establish a research group dedicated to the social history of Guangxi's ethnic groups. As deputy leader and head of the Zhuang subgroup, he guided the team's academic work. Under his leadership, they conducted the most extensive and thorough investigation of Guangxi's diverse ethnic histories and cultures to date.^[42][43][44] This six-month investigation spanned various regions of Guangxi, amassing a wealth of ethnographic, folkloric, and historical materials. These findings proved foundational for subsequent research on Zhuang history and culture, remaining essential resources for scholars even today. Beyond data collection, the investigation fostered a cohort of exceptional ethnic research talent, many of whom, like Li Ganfen, would later become pillars of the Guangxi Institute of Nationalities. This endeavor simultaneously advanced research, built a skilled team, and paved the way for the institute's establishment.Drawing on this extensive fieldwork, Huang Xianfan authored two landmark publications in 1957: Investigation Data on the Zhuang People of Daxin County, Guangxi Province^[45] and A Brief History of the Zhuang People in Guangxi.^[46] These books provided a comprehensive and systematic introduction to the history, culture, and social life of the Zhuang people. They represented the most comprehensive and in-depth scholarship on Zhuang studies at the time.Professor Shigeyuki Tsukada (塚田誠之) of the Social Research Department at the National Museum of Japanese Folklore and Ethnology praised "A Brief History of the Zhuang Ethnic Group in Guangxi," stating, "Professor Huang Xianfan, himself a Zhuang, is renowned in both Chinese and Japanese academia for this still-influential work. Based on extensive fieldwork and rigorous documentary research, he crafted a history of the Zhuang people's resistance against discrimination and oppression since ancient times. Huang asserts, 'While maintaining their own traditions over millennia, the Zhuang people have absorbed aspects of Han culture and gradually formed their own unique and rich culture. The Zhuang are the indigenous people of Guangxi.' This assertion is highly original and has attracted significant scholarly attention. 'A Brief History of the Zhuang Ethnic Group in Guangxi' is a milestone in Zhuang studies. Through his book, one glimpses Professor Huang's deep love for the Zhuang people.^[47]

These works provided a rich and detailed portrait of Zhuang history, society, and culture, representing a landmark achievement in Zhuang studies at the time. Their publication was groundbreaking, filling significant gaps in the existing scholarship and laying the groundwork for future research. A Brief History of the Zhuang People in Guangxi proved particularly impactful. It deepened public awareness of Zhuang culture, effectively advocating for greater understanding and recognition. Furthermore, the book's historical analysis provided key arguments in support of Zhuang autonomy and ultimately contributed to the establishment of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region.^[48]The 1956 investigation and the subsequent publication of A Brief History stand as pivotal moments in the advancement of Zhuang studies, leaving a lasting legacy on the field.It is for these groundbreaking contributions to the field of ethnology that Professor Huang is recognized as a founding figure of modern Chinese ethnology.^[35][49][50]

Between 1978 and 1982, Huang Xianfan's presence graced the towering mountains of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. From the border towns of Longzhou and Pingxiang to the revolutionary heartland of Baise and Tianyang, and on to Bama, renowned for the longevity of its people, his journeys encompassed the primary settlements of the Zhuang and other ethnic minorities in southwestern and western Guangxi.At each destination, he tirelessly pursued his fieldwork, diligently documenting a wealth of ethnographic knowledge. His scholarly curiosity extended beyond cultural inquiry to encompass the region's natural wonders and historical treasures. Of particular interest were the Huashan rock paintings of Ningming County, which he meticulously examined and studied. These paintings, constituting one of China's largest and most elaborate ancient rock art collections, whisper tales of the life and culture of the ancient Zhuang people, captivating Huang's imagination.^[51] The primary purpose of Huang's series of investigations was to collect first-hand materials to enhance the "general history of the Zhuang people" he was compiling - the first of its kind in China. This work aimed to systematically record various aspects of Zhuang history, culture, and social development, filling a significant gap in the field of Chinese ethnic minority studies.Mark Bender, Chair of East Asian Languages and Literatures at The Ohio State University, remarked that Professor Huang Xianfan's "General History of the Zhuang Ethnic Group "is rich in historical materials and of immense academic value. It is a pioneering work in international ethnology, establishing a new trend in Zhuang studies.^[52]

In the first half of the 20th century, influenced by Western social science trends, Chinese historians began to critically examine traditional historiography and seek new methodologies and areas of inquiry. Huang Xianfan emerged as a leading voice in this movement, actively engaging with contemporary trends and advocating for a "New Historiography." His scholarship exemplifies the independent thinking and innovative spirit of Chinese intellectuals who sought to reshape the field of history. Notably, between 1932 and 1934, he authored the three-volume "Compendium of Chinese General History," a groundbreaking work that applied concepts and methods of 20th-century historiography.This work marked a significant departure from the classical model, adopting a novel chapter structure. The narrative focus shifted from dynastic chronicles to a broader examination of the state, and from the traditional emphasis on the "aristocratic elite" to a more inclusive perspective encompassing the lives of ordinary people. Furthermore, the scope expanded beyond politics and institutions to encompass a wider range of themes, including culture, economy, society, religion, and the arts. In essence, the work transcended the traditional historiographical approach of merely evaluating historical figures and chronicling events.^[53][54]

Published in March 1936 by the Commercial Press, Huang Xianfan's "A General Outline of Tang Dynasty Society" marked a significant departure from traditional historiography. Divided into four chapters, each focusing on a distinct area of study and further subdivided into twelve sections, the book championed a "bottom-up" approach to history. This innovative methodology, which Huang termed "looking down in history," shifted the narrative focus from the actions of emperors and ministers to the lived experiences of the lower working classes. By privileging the perspectives of those traditionally excluded from official accounts, Huang offered a groundbreaking and more inclusive understanding of Tang Dynasty society.This innovative approach to history was met with immediate acclaim, with the first edition of "A General Outline of Tang Dynasty Society" quickly selling out and prompting a reprint in February 1937. Huang Xianfan's scholarship was not only at the forefront of Chinese social history but also resonated with emerging international trends. His "new historiography looking downward" shared striking similarities with the "history from below" (also known as "new Annales history" or "total social history") being developed by leading figures of the French Annales School, such as Lucien Febvre and Marc Bloch. This convergence highlights Huang's position as a pioneering figure in global historiography, demonstrating a shared commitment to expanding the scope of historical inquiry beyond traditional elite perspectives.^{[55] [4]}

In October of the same year, the Commercial Press published Huang Xianfan's "National Salvation Movement of the Students of the Imperial Academy during the Song Dynasty." The book drew explicit parallels between historical events and the contemporary political climate, seeking to ignite a sense of patriotism among university students. Huang urged these students to shed their passivity and embrace active engagement in national affairs, drawing inspiration from the unwavering loyalty and righteous actions of Song Dynasty Imperial Academy scholars. His aim was to galvanize a spirit of resistance against Japanese aggression and a resolute defense of the homeland.This work exemplifies the value and significance of Huang Xianfan's pioneering contributions to 20th-century historiography, particularly his development of "New Applied Historiography." Recognizing the limitations of the Qing dynasty's Evidential School, which he criticized for pursuing textual research for its own sake, Huang sought to extract the rational elements of traditional textual analysis and apply them to a new, more impactful approach. His "New Applied Historiography" transcended the limitations of the Qianlong and Jiaqing eras' focus on textual research as an end in itself. Instead, he integrated the Evidential School's emphasis on rigorous evidence with Gu Yanwu's concept of "practical learning" - the idea that scholarship should have real-world applications and contribute to effective governance. Furthermore, Huang drew inspiration from James Harvey Robinson's New History, which emphasized the social and cultural dimensions of the past and its relevance to contemporary issues. These influences are evident in his book, "National Salvation Movement of the Students of the Imperial Academy during the Song Dynasty." which not only draws upon meticulous historical research but also uses the past to inspire action in the present. By weaving together these diverse intellectual strands, Huang Xianfan forged a uniquely comprehensive and impactful approach to historical inquiry.^[56][57]

In the 1940s, Professor Huang Xianfan published a series of articles on social life history, including "A Study of the Evolution of Clothing in Our Country." These papers not only deepened the core of social history research but also innovated the research topics of the "New Historiography" movement. Huang was an early pioneer in exploring material culture within folklore studies, significantly expanding the scope of Chinese folklore research at that time. His approach went beyond traditional concepts and customs, delving into everyday material culture and opening up new perspectives in the field.His seminal work in this area, "A History of Chinese Daily Life, Clothing, Food, and Etiquette," exemplifies this approach. Based on extensive historical documents, this study thoroughly examined the evolution of clothing and food, as well as the development of etiquette in ancient China. Huang's use of material culture as a crucial entry point for folklore research was groundbreaking in the Chinese academic community at the time. It paved the way for new directions in Chinese folklore studies. This unique perspective and methodology have led some scholars to regard Professor Huang Xianfan as a pioneer in the study of Chinese folklore."^[58]

Professor Huang Xianfan, in his paper "A Tentative Discussion on the Construction of 'Chinese Lifeways Studies'" published in the late 1970s and early 1980s, was among the first to propose the concept of "Chinese Lifeways Studies." After conducting in-depth research on aspects of ancient Chinese life such as clothing, food, housing, and transportation, he was influenced by the prevailing trend of "Historiography Reform" and inspired by related research on "Japanese Lifeways Studies". He conducted preliminary explorations into the research objects, definition, disciplinary structure, and research methods of "Chinese Lifeways Studies.", proposing a framework for this field of study. Professor Huang Xianfan's conception of "Chinese Lifeways Studies" integrates research methods from various fields, including history, folklore, and sociology, aiming to comprehensively and systematically explore Chinese lifestyles and their evolution.Presenting Professor Huang Xianfan's research journey and related achievements in "Chinese Lifeways Studies" is not only to introduce the academic contributions of this scholar to the world but also to draw attention, discussion, and further research from academia towards the construction of "Chinese Lifeways Studies."^[59][60]

Huang Xianfan was a staunch advocate for independent academic research, viewing pioneering scholarship and intellectual freedom as his lifelong pursuits. He lived by the principle of "maintaining integrity and resisting subservience to authority," embracing the motto "Unbound by authority, limitless in scope, and free from restriction" in his academic work. As Professor Chen Jisheng observed, "Professor Huang's academic theory sought to bridge traditional Chinese historical studies with Western 'New History' theory, complementing the Qing dynasty's Puxue and Gu Yanwu's historiography with the modern American 'New History' approach of Robinson." Huang made significant contributions to both the theory and practice of New History in China, uniquely synthesizing Western evolutionary theory with traditional Chinese concepts of "Seeking Truth" and "The Past Serves the Present."^[61] Huang dedicated his life to exploring the dialectical relationship between historical philosophy and historical science. He consistently critiqued 20th-century Chinese general history for its lack of ethnic inclusivity, arguing against the prevailing view that equated Chinese history solely with Han history. He actively challenged the notion that China was synonymous with Han culture, advocating for the dismantling of such feudalistic biases.^[62] Huang was also openly critical of the dogmatism, rigidity, and inflexible application of Marxism. In 1957, he introduced the theory of a "no slave society" in Chinese history, an idea he would continue to develop in 1979.^[63] This perspective gained significant traction among historians, eventually formed the Wunu School in Chinese historiography.The "WuNu School" (WuNu Xuepai), also known as the "No Slave Society School," is a prominent school of thought in the study of ancient Chinese society. Its proponents collectively argue that "a slave society never existed in Chinese history," making it a significant force in Chinese historiography. The "slave" (nu) in the school's name specifically refers to the concept of a "slave society," not to the presence of "slaves" or "slavery" in general. Named for this shared rejection of a slave society paradigm in Chinese history, the school is considered "problem-oriented" in its approach. The WuNu School emerged in the 1980s, with Huang Xianfan as its founder.^[64][65] In 1979, Huang Xianfan first introduced the concept that "a slave society never existed in Chinese history," a claim that quickly sparked widespread debate and discussion within academic circles. The central argument of the No Slave School is that China transitioned directly from a primitive society to a feudal society, bypassing a distinct slave society stage. While acknowledging the presence of slavery in Chinese history, proponents argue that it never constituted the dominant mode of production or formed the basis of the social structure. They contend that the primary contradiction in ancient Chinese society existed between the landlord class and the peasantry, rather than between slave owners and slaves.The No Slave School has profoundly impacted Chinese historical research, challenging established periodization methods and prompting a reevaluation of China's social development. The school's emergence also reflects a broader trend of ideological liberation and academic innovation within China following the Reform and Opening-up.However, the No Slave School's perspectives have also fueled intense academic debate. Supporters believe the theory offers a more accurate understanding of Chinese history, while critics maintain the validity of traditional periodization methods.Overall, the rise of the No Slave School marks a pivotal turning point in Chinese historiography. It has not only spurred in-depth discussions about the nature of ancient Chinese society but also catalyzed innovation and development in historical　research methods. ^[66][67]

Huang Xianfan was a staunch opponent of ethnic chauvinism. He believed that inequality was the root cause of ethnic problems and a major factor driving historical conflicts between groups. ^[68] Huang championed global ethnic equality and a scientific approach to ethnic studies. His extensive research and fieldwork made him a leading figure in 20th-century Zhuang studies, earning him the title "father of Zhuang studies."^[69][70] Huang's work led to the formation of the "Huang group" of Zhuang studies, an influential part of the renowned Bagui School of Chinese ethnology. Founded in the 1950s, the Huang group remains active today and consists of Huang Xianfan and his 18 students, often called his "elite disciples." Now professors and researchers themselves, these students primarily work in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, particularly at Guangxi Normal University and Guangxi University for Nationalities.This academic group comprises scholars of both Zhuang and Han ethnicity, fostering collaboration and cross-cultural understanding. Notable Zhuang scholars within the group include Huang Xianfan, Huang Zengqing, Zhang Yiming, Li Guozhu, Su Guanchang, Li Ganfen, Zhou Zongxian, Qin Suguan, Zhou Zuoqiu, Huang Shaoqing, Huang Weicheng, He Yingde, He Longqun, Yu Shijie, Gong Yonghui, and Qin Deqing. Prominent Han scholars in the group include Ou Yang Ruoxiou, Xiao Zechang, and Zhou Zuoming.The group's research delves into various facets of Zhuang culture, encompassing history, archaeology, folklore, education, literature, historical figures, and traditional systems like the Dulao and Chieftain systems. A key characteristic of their work is a strong emphasis on field research, greatly aided by the members' fluency in minority languages. This hands-on approach has become a defining feature of their scholarship.^[71][72]

The Bagui School, an influential group of ethnologists centered around Huang Xianfan, emerged at Guangxi Normal University in China during the mid-1950s. Its formation coincided with Huang's appointment to the National People's Congress Ethnic Affairs Committee, where he led a research group focused on the ethnic social history of Guangxi. Active since the latter half of the 20th century, the Bagui School is recognized as China's first school of ethnic studies. Under Huang Xianfan's guidance, many members of the Bagui School were Zhuang scholars deeply devoted to their heritage. Drawn from various universities and ethnic research institutes, they dedicated themselves to researching the culture and history of the Zhuang people in Guangxi.The Bagui School distinguishes itself through its unconventional approach, consistently challenging ethnic chauvinism and championing equality among China's diverse ethnic groups. The school promotes a rigorous, scientific approach to ethnic studies, emphasizing field research and empirical evidence. Bound by a shared vision for Zhuang studies, the Bagui School continues to flourish today, having branched out into various sub-groups that delve deeper into Zhuang history and culture. For his instrumental role in its creation, Huang Xianfan is celebrated in academic circles as the founder of the Bagui School.^{[73][74][75] [76]}

While working as an assistant director at the Institute for Education Studies at Beijing Normal University, Huang Xianfan began researching education. He strongly believed in shaping students' character through education, emphasizing the importance of combining knowledge with action. In 1981, he established the Lijiang Spare-time College and became its headmaster, pioneering private higher education in China after 1949.^[77] Throughout his 40-year teaching career, Huang remained dedicated to the principle of character development through education. Former vice chairman of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Liang Chenye, once praised Huang, saying, "Professor Huang Xianfan devoted his life to Chinese higher education. He was a true educational giant of his time and holds a prominent place in modern Chinese history."^[78] The Huang family is known as a "family of educators," as both Huang Xianfan and his wife, along with most of their children, have dedicated their lives to teaching.^[79][80]

Professor Huang Xianfan's scholarship was characterized by three key elements: pioneering historical research, a multi-evidence approach, and an innovative textual research methodology. Building upon Wang Guowei's dual evidence method, Professor Huang established his unique "tri-evidence method." This novel approach to academic research incorporated archeological materials (artifacts and inscriptions), historical documents, and ethnological data (historical relics and oral histories) in his textual investigations of ancient Chinese history and culture.^[61]

Huang Xianfan was a scholar first and foremost, dedicated to teaching and research. During the 1940s Republican era, he held no official positions and rarely involved himself in activities outside of academia, especially political party affairs. He never actively sought involvement in politics. However, as a member of the Zhuang ethnic group, his inherent sense of justice and defiance of authority often drew him into contentious situations. He never hesitated to speak up for students and colleagues facing unfair treatment, and his unwavering commitment to academic independence often found him caught in the crossfire of political turmoil.^[81][82] From 1938 to 1944, while Chen Lifu served as the Minister of Education, he implemented the policies of "party-run schools" and "party-based education," tightening the Kuomintang's grip on universities. After Gao Yang assumed the presidency of Guangxi University in 1941, he immediately detained a group of progressive students, most of whom came from impoverished backgrounds and had a good relationship with Professor Huang Xianfan. Professor Huang disapproved of the Kuomintang's Chen Cheng faction taking over Guangxi University. To voice support for the arrested students, he galvanized a student campaign to "Overthrow Gao." Ultimately, he faced persecution: Guangxi University terminated his contract, and even his wife, Liu Lihua, who taught at the university's affiliated primary school, was implicated and fired. Understandably, these incidents enraged him. Later, at the invitation of Professor Luo Xianglin, he transferred to Sun Yat-sen University as a history professor. After Gao Yang's departure in late 1942, Professor Huang resumed his post at Guangxi University to continue teaching.^[79] During the Kuomintang's rule, while Huang Xianfan was working at Guangxi University, Kuomintang members frequently courted him to join their ranks, but he remained unmoved. Communist Party members also sought him out at his residence at night, eager to enlist him, but he politely declined their offer as well. It wasn't until 1943 that Qiu Chen, a founding member of the Chinese Peasants' and Workers' Democratic Party (CPWDP) in Guangxi, successfully persuaded him to join. He became a committee member of the CPWDP's Guangxi branch. However, Huang Xianfan's life experiences clearly demonstrate a distinct lack of enthusiasm for any political parties or campaign. His overall indifference towards political affairs is evident throughout his lifelong activities.^[83]

With the Communist Party's ascent to power in 1949 and the subsequent founding of the People's Republic of China, Huang Xianfan, as a renowned professor in Guangxi, was appointed to various positions by the new regime.From 1949 to 1957, he was first appointed as a member of the People's Government of the Guixi Zhuang Autonomous Region.^[84] He then served as a member of both the Guangxi Provincial People's Committee and the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Regional People's Government. He served as both the Vice Leader of the Central-South Sub-group and the Leader of the Guangxi Sub-group within the central government's ethnic mission led by Fei Xiaotong. and deputy director of the Guangxi Social and Historical Investigation Group. His influence reached beyond Guangxi as well, leading to his election as a council member of the newly established Chinese People's Association for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries (known today as the Chinese People's Association for Friendship with Foreign Countries). Furthermore, he served as a deputy to the National People's Congress, becoming a member of both the NPC's Ethnic Affairs Committee and the Central Committee for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries.^[85][86][87] On April 27, 1957, the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party issued the "Directive Regarding the Rectification Campaign," setting in motion a Party-wide campaign aimed at rooting out bureaucratism, sectarianism,^[88][89] and subjectivism. Echoing Mao Zedong's call for open criticism— "I will speak frankly and share all my knowledge. The speaker should not be faulted, but the listener ought to take it as cautionary advice. Where mistakes exist, correct them; where they do not, use it as a lesson to further improve oneself." (知无不言，言无不尽，言者无罪，闻者足戒，有则改之,无则加勉) ^[90][91]— the Party encouraged non-members to offer unfiltered opinions on its actions and the government.However, this invitation turned out to be an unexpected misstep for the Communist Party, unleashing a torrent of opinions and suggestions,primarily from prominent intellectuals eager to contribute to the nation's revitalization and challenge one-party rule. These initially well-intentioned critiques, however, gradually transformed into pointed criticisms targeting the Communist Party and Mao Zedong himself. This deviation from Mao's initial vision for the Rectification Campaign – which was to leverage non-Party voices to silence internal dissent – brought the campaign to a halt. On June 8 of the same year, the Central Committee, under Mao's direction, issued the "Directive on Organizing Forces to Counterattack the Rightists' Offensive," ^[92] marking the onset of the Anti-Rightist Campaign, a period that would descend into the most widespread persecution of intellectuals in Chinese history.Guo Moruo once said, "The speech of those without sin is faultless, while the speech of the sinful is certainly flawed." He also remarked, "If a person's words can shake the foundations of the country and yet remain blameless, then where is the rule of law?" Guo Moruo's statements are truly laughable. Has there ever been a precedent in Chinese or foreign history where a single person's words were capable of shaking the rule of a monarchy or the very foundations of a country?^{[93][94][95][96]} During the 1957 Rectification Campaign, Huang Xianfan famously declared, “Many CPC cadres were illiterate peasant workers without formal education. Such individuals lack the capacity to govern universities, let alone the nation.”^[97] Indeed, whether he was criticizing the ruling Kuomintang in the 1940s or the governing Communists in the 1950s, Huang remained a staunch advocate for academic freedom. He consistently challenged the notion of "party-run schools" and railed against "politicized education." He loathed the idea of amateurs dictating to professionals and instead championed "scholar-administered institutions" and "scientific education." "The party is not the school," he often argued, "and the party committee cannot substitute the faculty council." Could such bold pronouncements truly undermine an authoritarian regime?^[98][99]

A straightforward scholar like Huang Xianfan could not escape persecution during the Anti-Rightist era.^[100] After being labeled a "Rightist," he faced an overwhelming barrage of critical articles and big-character posters, along with various condemnation meetings at Guangxi Normal College.He faced a barrage of accusations, including undermining national unity, inciting discord between the CCP and the masses, and opposing the unified purchase and sale system.Outwardly, Huang was forced to accept the criticism, but inwardly, he never admitted guilt.He believed he was simply doing his duty as a representative to the People's Congress. He had answered the government's call by participating in the Hundred Flowers Campaign and expressing his honest opinions—actions he maintained were without fault.^[101] For instance, at one meeting criticizing him for certain "Rightist remarks," Huang defended himself, saying, "Some of the statements you criticize weren't made by me but by Mao Zedong. If he can say them, why can't I?" The critics immediately pounced, saying, "How dare you compare yourself to Chairman Mao? Your crime is even greater."^[102] At another condemnation meeting held in the college library, someone spoke up and said,"You people who oppose the Party and socialism, what's so great about you? You're all nothing but dog shit." As the library director since the educational reorganization in 1952, Huang, known as the biggest "Rightist" in Guangxi's academic circles, could no longer tolerate such insults. He retorted fiercely, "Dog shit has its use; it can fertilize farmers' fields. It's better than those who throw stones on someone who has fallen into a well, who are lower than dog shit!"^[103][81]

Following this, on February 1, 1958, the Fifth Session of the First National People's Congress passed a resolution removing Fei Xiaotong, Huang Xianfan, and Ou Baichuan^{[104][105] [106][107]} from their positions on the National Committee of the People's Congress. At the same time, Huang was stripped of nine other positions ranging from central to local levels, leaving him only as a member of the Guangxi Political Consultative Conference. Among the famous five "Rightist" historians in China (Huang Xianfan, Xiang Da, Lei Haizong, Wang Zhongmin, and Chen Mengjia), Huang held the highest political status. The Anti-Rightist Campaign was inherently a campaign of political persecution, and Huang Xianfan was considered the top of the five people being criticized.^[108] This was not without reason. He was not only wrongly labeled as the number one "Rightist" in Chinese historical academia and among the Zhuang people,^[4][109] but also one of the six famous "Rightist" figures among China's ethnic minorities (Long Yun of the Yi, Huang Xianfan of the Zhuang, Ou Baichuan of the Miao, Ma Songting of the Hui, Xiang Da of the Tujia, and Wang Yizhai of the Hui).^{[110][111][103][112][113][114]}

During the Cultural Revolution, Huang Xianfan suffered persecution once again.The Red Guards labeled him an "unrepentant major Rightist who had his cap removed," a "reactionary academic authority," and accused him of "launching a counterattack from an academic standpoint." he endured public denunciations, physical abuse including being paraded through the streets, subjected to isolation for scrutiny, and his home raided with books confiscated and destroyed.^[115] Huang Xianfan's repeated hardships were no accident. They were a direct result of his courageous resistance to authority and his unwavering commitment to the traditional Chinese historian's ideal of impartiality.Like many persecuted intellectuals of the time, he felt powerless. However, deep within, he refused to accept the criticisms, maintaining his stance much as he did during the Anti-Rightist Campaign, and never admitted wrongdoing.^[116] According to his colleagues from the same school and department, "There was a time during the Cultural Revolution when several former students, now turned Red Guards, held a criticism session against Professor Huang. They disregarded their previous teacher-student relationship and, taking a revolutionary stance, accused him of poisoning their minds. Upon hearing this, Professor Huang, with his characteristic tilt of the head and a few 'Ah! Ah!'s, calmly replied, 'That's not quite accurate! If we're talking about poisoning, it was you who willingly sought my guidance, not me actively trying to influence you.' This witty retort left the young revolutionaries with little more than hollow slogans before they retreated. Such composed handling of adversity and solving of problems with humor became anecdotes that circulated for a long time." During the Cultural Revolution, Huang Xianfan was essentially under house arrest. Thereafter, he withdrew from worldly affairs and devoted himself wholeheartedly to writing for ten years.^[102][117]

The Cultural Revolution ended in 1976, and reforms began in 1978. Huang Xianfan's rightist persecution was not overturned until 1979. He was the earliest born, longest-lived among the five major rightists in the field of history, and the only one to be rehabilitated during his lifetime. After 1979, he was successively appointed as a consultant for the first sessions of the Chinese Ethnology Society and the Chinese Southwest Nationalities Research Society, as well as Vice President of the Baiyue Ethnic History Research Society. He also served as a member of the editorial committee for the "Encyclopedia of Chinese Ethnicities" and as a member of the Fifth National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference.^[118][119] During his tenure as a member of the CPPCC National Committee, He did a great deal of work to assist the government in overturning unjust, false, and wrongful cases. For example, there was a former student from the Physics Department of Guangxi Normal University who, during the Anti-Rightist Campaign in 1957, was wrongly imprisoned. He resisted the false charges, appealing multiple times and escaping from prison twice. Initially sentenced to death with a two-year reprieve with a commutation to life imprisonment, this rightist spent 23 years in prison. Through Huang Xianfan's extensive efforts, he was finally exonerated and released without charge in August 1981, ending his 23-year ordeal of wrongful imprisonment and allowing him to return to work in the Physics Department of Guangxi Normal University.^{[120][121][122]}

He died in 1982 at the age of 84, having lived through four eras in Chinese history – the Qing dynasty, the Beiyang Government, the Republic of China, and the People's Republic of China. In an essay titled "My Father," his son Gan Jinshan wrote: "The ups and downs of his life's honor and disgrace encapsulated the experience of Chinese intellectuals. My father's life often reminds me of Lu Xun's words: Since ancient times, China has had people who buried their heads in hard work, people who struggled with all their might, There are those who speak for the people, people who gave up their lives in the pursuit of truth - they are the backbone of China." This man's long life spanned a tumultuous period in Chinese history, witnessing the fall of imperial rule, the rise and fragmentation of republican government, and having experienced the various political movements of the People's Republic of China. Yet, as an intellectual, he persisted through the shifting political winds, standing firm in his convictions despite facing both acclaim and oppression. His unwavering spirit exemplified the qualities praised by Lu Xun - diligence, determination, selflessness and a tireless quest for truth. A life emblematic of Chinese intellectuals' resilience, serving as a powerful reminder of the enduring impact of principled belief and action against adversity.^[123][124]

On November 13, 1998, Guilin Middle School established the "Huang Xianfan Scholarship" to be awarded annually on the same date. In November 1999, a commemorative symposium was held at Guangxi Normal University to celebrate the 100th anniversary of Professor Huang Xianfan's birth. After the symposium, a commemorative anthology and a selected collection of his academic papers titled "A Preliminary Exploration of Ancient Book Interpretations - Selected Academic Papers by Huang Xianfan" were published. Guangxi Normal University and Guilin Middle School now offer the "Huang Xianfan Minority Scholarship" and "Huang Xianfan Scholarship" respectively to honor his memory.^[125] On November 13, 2003, Guangxi Normal University established the "Huang Xianfan Publishing Fund."^[126] Huang Xianfan's former residence was approved as a cultural heritage site in Fusui County on August 21, 2017. In February 2018, the Fusui County government invested several hundred thousand yuan to renovate the "Huang Xianfan Former Residence."^[127] In the same year, Nanhu Park in Nanning, Guangxi, established a path commemorating renowned figures, with an inscription about Huang Xianfan's biography along the path.^[128] The first full-body standing bronze statue of Huang Xianfan was erected in his hometown by the Culture and Sports Bureau of Fusui County Government. On September 10, 2022, which coincided with Teachers' Day and the Mid-Autumn Festival, an unveiling ceremony for "Mr. Huang Xianfan's Statue" was held in Leyangcheng, Fusui.^[129][130] The second full-body seated bronze statue of Huang Xianfan was installed by Guangxi Normal University on November 13, 2023, marking the 124th anniversary of Professor Huang Xianfan's birth. This statue is located in front of the Comprehensive Teaching Building on the Yanshan Campus of Guangxi Normal University. These statues serve as a tribute to the esteemed scholar and educator, commemorating his invaluable contributions to academia and society.^[131]

Huang Xianfan and his wife, Liu Lihua, an educator with a 50-year career, had nine children together. Under Huang Xianfan's strict yet effective parenting, all of their offspring went on to lead accomplished lives. Notably, two of their children attained the rank of university professor, including Huang Xiaoling, who taught at Guangxi medical school.Despite the turbulent times they lived through, with China undergoing massive political and social upheaval, Huang Xianfan and Liu Lihua instilled core values of integrity, diligence, fearlessness, and a thirst for knowledge in their children. Their parenting philosophy, rooted in traditional Confucian principles yet adapting to the modern era, equipped their progeny with the tools to navigate challenges and seize opportunities.This emphasis on education and hard work paid dividends, as all nine siblings excelled in their respective fields.^{[132][133][134]}

• "Outline of Chinese General History",three volumes,Beijing: Beiping Culture Society,1932-1934.
• Foreign history of high school. Beijing: Beiping Lida Bookstore, 1933.
• "A General Outline of Tang Dynasty Society" ,Shanghai: Commercial Press, 1936. 1937(Reprinted by Jilin Publishing Group in November 2009)
• "National Salvation Movement of the Students of the Imperial Academy during the Song Dynasty", Shanghai: Commercial Press, 1936, 1956,1965 (Reprinted by Wenxing Bookstore in Taipei), 1996(Reprinted by Shanghai Bookstore), 2000 (Reprinted by Jilin Publishing Group ).
• "Lecture Notes on the General History of China". The Registrar's Office of Guangxi University (Mimeographed),1938.
• A Social History of the Yin Dynasty( Shang Dynasty), Mimeographed by the Library of Guangxi University, 1950.
• History of China's feudal society. Nanning: Guangxi University, 1952.
• Selected Readings in Chinese history books. Guilin: Guangxi Normal University, 1953.
• Zhuang history of resistance to oppression. Nanning: Guangxi social and historical investigation team, 1957.
• Brief History of the Zhuang. Nanning: Guangxi Peoples's Press, 1957.
• Establishment of the Soviet regime in Youjiang. Guilin: Guangxi Normal University, 1957.
• Survey of the Guangxi Daxin County Zhuang. Nanning: Guangxi social and historical investigation team, 1957.
• On the social and historical survey of Guangxi Zhuang. Nanning: Guangxi, social and historical investigation team, 1957.
• Introduction to classical writings read. Guilin: Guangxi Normal University, 1962.
• Formation of the Han. Guilin: Guangxi Normal University, 1976.
• No Slave Society in Chinese History. Guilin: Guangxi Normal University Press, 1981.
• Nong Zhigao. Nanning: Guangxi Peoples's Press, 1983, OCLC 298790911, OCLC 565332767, OCLC 53184829, OCLC 865591745
• General History of the Zhuang. Nanning: Guangxi National Press, 1988. ISBN 7-5363-0422-6/K·13
• Introduction on Chinese Ancient Books. Guilin: Guangxi Normal University Press, 2004. ISBN 7-5633-4743-7
• A Commentary Biography of Wei Baqun. Guilin: Guangxi Normal University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-7-5633-7656-8(Google books)
• China's History Had No Slave Society - Also on Ancient Slaves of the World and Their Social Forms.by Huang Xianfan. Guilin: Guangxi Normal University Press, 2015. 800,000 words.(Guangxi Normal University Press)(Google books)
• Huang Xianfan's Autobiography.As Told by Huang Xianfan,Gan Wenjie, Gan Wenhao, and Gan Jinshan(ed.), Guilin: Guangxi Normal University Press, 2018, 520,000 words.(Guangxi Normal University Press)(Google books)

The following are the Articles written by Huang Xianfan.

• Data source: Huang Xianfan. Introduction on Chinese Ancient Books. Guilin: Guangxi Normal University Press, 2004.p. 560-567(works and articles catalog).^[135]

• Huang Xianfan's Autobiography. As Told by Huang Xianfan,Gan Wenjie, Gan Wenhao, and Gan Jinshan(ed.). Guangxi Normal University Press，2018. ISBN 754950038X, 9787549500383(Google books)(Guangxi Normal University Press).
• Who's Who in the Modern Republic of China and Manchukuo. Intelligence Department of the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs (ed.). Published by Association for the Common Culture of East Asia, 1937. p. 177 (National Diet Library)
• Dictionary of Modern Chinese Names. Tokyo: Japanese Kazankai Foundation, 1957, 1962, 1966, 1972, 1982, 1986 editions. pp. 189, 208, 327, 325, 318, 588.(National Diet Library)
• Great Dictionary of Chinese Names - Volume of Contemporary Figures. Editorial Committee of the Great Dictionary of Chinese Names(ed.).Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographical Press, 1992.p. 1861.ISBN 7532602079, 9787532602070 (Google books)
• Great Dictionary of Contemporary Chinese Cultural Celebrities.Editorial Committee of the Great Dictionary of Contemporary Chinese Cultural Celebrities(ed.). Beijing: Chinese Radio and Television Press，1992.p. 519.ISBN 7504315133, 9787504315137(Google books)
• 2,300 Chinese Celebrities That Every Chinese Should Know.Li Ke、Zhou Xiaomeng、Shen Zhi(ed.). Wànjuàn Publishing Company，2009.p. 209. ISBN 7547003540, 9787547003541(Google books)
• Great Dictionary of Education.Editorial Committee of the Great Dictionary of Chinese Education(ed.). Shanghai:Shanghai Education Press，1998.p. 1450. ISBN 7532053806, 9787532053803(Google books)
• Great Dictionary of the Cultures of Chinese Ethnic Minorities - Volume for the Central-Southern and Southeastern Regions.Tiemuer Dawamat(ed.). Nationalities Press，1999.p. 143-144.ISBN 7105033894, 9787105033898 (Google books)