Langbahn Team – Weltmeisterschaft

Bukit Brown Cemetery

Bukit Brown Cemetery
Bukit Brown Cemetery in 2011
Map
Details
Established1 January 1922
Closed1973
Location
36C Lor Halwa, Singapore 298637
CountrySingapore
Coordinates1°20′10″N 103°49′23″E / 1.3361°N 103.8230°E / 1.3361; 103.8230
TypeChinese
Size233 ha (580 acres)
No. of graves100,000

Bukit Brown Cemetery, which is also known as Bukit Brown Municipal Cemetery or Bukit Brown Chinese Cemetery, is located in Novena, in the Central Region of Singapore. The site of the cemetery was originally owned by George Henry Brown, a British merchant. Due to its hilly terrain, the site became known as Brown's Hill, which was translated into Malay as Bukit Brown.

Following multiple transfers of ownership, the Government acquired the site and opened Bukit Brown Cemetery in 1922. The site was used as a Chinese burial ground, with about 100,000 graves, until its closure in 1973. In 2011, the government designated the area for residential development, which was met with protests from activists who believed the cemetery should be preserved. The following year, 3,700 graves were exhumed to build an eight-lane highway. Bukit Brown Cemetery is believed to be the largest Chinese cemetery outside of China and is the burial location of many of Singapore's earliest pioneers.

Activists want to conserve Bukit Brown Cemetery due to its vegetation, wildlife, and heritage displayed by the graves in the cemetery. Traditional Chinese festivals are regularly held at the cemetery.

Etymology

The cemetery and the surrounding area are referred to as Bukit Brown, after George Henry Brown, the original owner of the land where the cemetery is situated. Due to its hilly terrain, the land became known as Brown's Hill, which was translated into Malay as Bukit Brown, bukit meaning hill.[1]

Bukit Brown was the first location in Singapore to be given a hybrid name, being both English and Malay.[2] Brown named the hill where the cemetery is located Mount Pleasant; it is also locally referred to as Coffee Hill or Kopi Sua.[3]

History

Early establishments (1800s)

George Henry Brown in 1863 with his daughter Charlotte Ellen

George Henry Brown (1826–1882) was a 19th-century British merchant and ship owner who arrived in the Straits Settlements (present-day Singapore) in the 1840s and lived there until his death after an accident in Penang on 5 October 1882.[1]

Brown's business G. H. Brown & Co was located at Raffles Place. Brown married Ellen Brown (1827–1903) in 1854 and they had multiple children. Brown was known for his interest in music; he played the organ at St. Andrew's Cathedral. Brown also owned multiple plots of land in the colony; these included a plot that had hilly terrain, which he called Mount Pleasant. Brown built a house he called Fern Cottage at Mount Pleasant; he had tried planting nutmeg and coffee on the site but was unsuccessful. The land was commonly referred to as Brown's Hill, which was locally translated into Malay to Bukit Brown.[1]

Brown sold the land to Mootapa Chitty – a Chettiar – and Lim Chu Yi, who later sold the land to the Hokkien Seh Ong Kongsi clan members –Ong Hew Ko, Ong Ewe Hai, and Ong Chong Chew. In the 1870s, the trio turned the land into a private cemetery for Chinese people of the Ong clan and it became known as the Seh Ong Cemetery, which the Seh Ong Kongsi managed.[4][5] Hew Ko, Ewe Hai, and Chong Chew were buried at Bukit Brown Cemetery after their deaths.[6]

Municipal acquisition and opening (1900–2000)

The first mention of a municipal[a] Chinese cemetery was in 1906, when at a municipal meeting, Peranakan social activist Lim Boon Keng suggested the inception of a proper burial site for the Chinese, which the Municipal Commission of Singapore unanimously agreed upon.[7] Singaporean politician Tan Kheam Hock also supported the establishment of a public Chinese cemetery. In 1917, Tan asked whether progress had been made in acquiring land at Bukit Brown to repurpose it as a Chinese burial ground.[8] When Bukit Brown Cemetery was opened, Tan managed the cemetery until his death.[9]

The Hokkien cemetery at Keppel Harbour and the cemetery at Holland Road were considered for use but in a meeting on 26 October 1917, the Municipal Commission chose Seh Ong Cemetery, particularly due to its size and cost.[5] Following this decision, the Seh Ong Kongsi stated:

The trustees preferred to retain the land for the use of their own kongsi. There was sufficient land to last the Seh Ong Kongsi for 200 years and they preferred to reserve it for themselves rather than sell it and make use of it for other kongsis or races of Chinese who were short of burial grounds. [sic][10]

After multiple negotiations with the Seh Ong Kongsi, where every time they refused to give up the land, the Municipal Commissioners decided: "the only other course left [for the Commission was] to approach the [British] government[b] to appropriate the land in spite of the unwillingness of the owners".[10] In 1919, the Municipal Commission acquired the land through compulsory acquisition despite resistance from the Seh Ong Kongsi.[11]

The temple at Bukit Brown Cemetery in 1929.

In 1921, by-laws for Bukit Brown Cemetery were established to regulate burials for the Chinese.[12] It was then opened as Bukit Brown Municipal Cemetery on 1 January 1922.[11] In 1923, the road leading to Bukit Brown Cemetery was named Bukit Brown Road, and another road leading up to the cemetery was named Kheam Hock Road after Tan.[13][14] A cemetery temple, which was run by a caretaker, was built and a priest who sold joss sticks and candles was hired.[15]

When it was opened, Bukit Brown Cemetery was not popular with the Chinese; its first burial occurred in August 1922. The municipal president stated it was "not utilized to the extent which we had anticipated", the main reasons being the size and layout of the grave plots, although these were put in place to maximise space. Bukit Brown Cemetery was also separated into "general" and "pauper" sections to make it more inclusive.[16][17] The general section's plots were about 14 by 8 feet (4.3 m × 2.4 m) and cost $50 Strait whilst the pauper section's plots were 8 by 4 feet (2.4 m × 1.2 m). The pauper section was located in a low-lying area that was regularly flooded but there was no monetary cost for plots.[18][19]

Due to the limited plot sizes, families typically used two burial plots for one burial. Other complaints were that plot sizes were irregular – some being larger than others; larger plots were owned by wealthier individuals, leading to complaints about social classes.[16] The Municipal Commission later consulted with the Chinese Advisory Board, which changed plot layouts to better account for the Chinese, expanding the sizes of plots to 20 by 10 feet (6.1 m × 3.0 m) in the general section and 10 by 5 feet (3.0 m × 1.5 m) in the pauper section.[20] This helped Bukit Brown Cemetery to become more popular among the Chinese community.[21] Following the cemetery's popularity, rest houses and wells were built, and gardeners were hired to maintain the grounds.[22]

By 1929, 40% of Chinese deaths in Singapore were buried at Bukit Brown Cemetery.[4] In 1941, Choa Chu Kang Cemetery was established as Bukit Brown Cemetery and Bidadari Cemetery were both running out of space.[23] By 1944, Bukit Brown Cemetery had reached its max number of burials and no further burials were allowed except for those who had reserved plots.[24]

In 1946, more grave plots at Bukit Brown Cemetery were released for people whose reservations had been taken up during the Japanese occupation and used for pauper burials.[25][26] In 1947, Bukit Brown Cemetery and Choa Chu Kang Cemetery were discussed in a municipal meeting by L. Rayman, who was concerned about the land use by the cemeteries. An amendment that limited the size of burial plots was later passed.[27] In 1965, the Public Works Department (PWD) exhumed 237 graves to realign Lornie Road off Adam Road.[28][29] Bukit Brown Cemetery was closed in 1973 with about 100,000 graves.[4]

Redevelopment plans for Bukit Brown and conservation efforts (2000–present)

A banner opposing the building of Lornie Highway.

From 2011 to 2012, the area was designated for residential development[c] and many activists were upset by this decision, saying the cemetery was "a distinctive slice of the multi-ethnic country's fast disappearing heritage"[32] and that it should be preserved.[33][34][35] This plan included the exhumation of 3,700 graves to make space for an eight-lane highway.[36]

In 2012, the Minister of State for National Development Tan Chuan-Jin announced 5,000 graves would be exhumed to make way for the new, eight-lane Lornie Highway that would cut through the cemetery.[37] This number was later reduced to 3,746 on 19 March 2012.[38][39][40] Construction of Lornie Highway began in 2011 and was expected to be completed by 2016 but was eventually completed in 2018.[41] During construction, Bukit Brown Road was replaced with a section of Lornie Highway.[42] A bridge under Lornie Highway was built to help animals pass through.[43]

A notice at Bukit Brown Cemetery about the exhumation of graves.

The National Archives of Singapore (NAS) digitised and released the burial registers of Bukit Brown Cemetery between April 1922 and December 1972 online, as well as a map of the cemetery to help descendants check if their ancestor's graves were affected by the development.[44] It was also revealed that the rest of the cemetery would make way for a new public housing town in about 40 years time.[45] In 2014, a bush fire broke out at Bukit Brown Cemetery that was the about the size of "1½ football fields" which took the Singapore Civil Defence Force (SCDF) 2 hours to put out.[46] Bukit Brown Cemetery was also named on the 2014 World Monuments Watch as an "at risk site".[47]

In 2015, following the Singapore Botanic Gardens gaining UNESCO World Heritage Site status, Bukit Brown Cemetery and other sites were suggested for the same status. Sites such as Bukit Brown Cemetery and Jalan Kubor Cemetery are "neither a building nor a monument" and are unable to obtain National Monument status despite having rich heritage, making it unlikely they would receive UNESCO World Heritage Site status.[48] In 2016, Bukit Brown Cemetery's gates, which were installed in the 1920s, were removed from their original posts, cleaned and repaired, and reinstalled at the mouth of a new access road near its original location.[49][50] In 2017, Singapore Heritage Society launched a self-guided trail through Bukit Brown Cemetery that takes visitors around 25 gravestones.[51] A grave belonging to Chen Yi Kuan collapsed due to nearby construction works for Mount Pleasant MRT station on the Thomson–East Coast MRT line.[52]

In August 2024, Bukit Brown conservation groups opened an outdoor display called Sounds of the Earth, which features 80 unclaimed artifacts that were collected in 2013, during the construction of Lornie Highway.[42][53]

Geography

An aerial view of Bukit Brown Cemetery, taken in 1946.

Bukit Brown Cemetery is located in Novena in the Central Region of Singapore and is bordered by the Central Water Catchment to the north, Toa Payoh to the east, Kallang to the south-east, Newton and Tanglin to the south, and Bukit Timah to the west. Built attractions around the cemetery include Singapore Polo Club and the Old Police Academy.[d] The cemetery is bordered by Pan Island Expressway to the south and Thomson Road to the east, and is bisected by Lornie Highway.[56]

In 2017, Singapore Heritage Society released a digital, self-guided trail of Bukit Brown Cemetery called the Bukit Brown Wayfinder. The guide divides a small section of the cemetery into three blocks with signs to direct users to 25 gravestones.[57][58]

Kampong Kheam Hock or Kheam Hock Village, a kampong village, formerly existed along Kheam Hock Road. In 1949, a municipal survey estimated there were 250 huts at the village whilst in 1984, an estimated 200 families lived there.[59][3] Kampong Kheam Hock was listed for development in 1984; the village was demolished and its residents were moved to Housing and Development Board (HDB) flats in Potong Pasir and Hougang.[3][60]

As of November 2021, the Mount Pleasant planning area is under construction by the HDB, the Urban Redevelopment Authority, and the Singapore Land Authority. When complete, it will border Bukit Brown Cemetery in the south-east.[56] Two non-operational Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) stations are located in the Bukit Brown area; Mount Pleasant MRT station is planned to be opened together with the Mount Pleasant planning area whilst Bukit Brown MRT station will open once Bukit Brown Cemetery has been redeveloped.[61][62]

Traditional practices

Coloured papers placed on a grave during the Qingming Festival

Due to Bukit Brown Cemetery's high Chinese population, traditional Chinese festivals are held there annually; these include the Qingming Festival, during which traffic police regulate the high traffic flow into the cemetery.[63][64][65] During the COVID-19 pandemic, the government advised visitors to Bukit Brown Cemetery and Mandai Crematorium and Columbarium to be in groups of four and to refrain from taking with them elderly family members.[66]

The Hungry Ghost Festival is another festival that is usually performed by representatives of Chinese temples who, despite having no relation to the deceased, perform the rituals and offerings to them. The representatives regard this as a form of charity because the deceased do not have descendants to perform the rituals for them.[67]

Environment

Vegetation

An overgrown bench and table

Due to its dense vegetation, Bukit Brown Cemetery helps to prevent flooding caused by surface runoff and serves as a carbon storage site. In a position paper, Singapore Heritage Society stated the cemetery should be kept for these reasons. Other organisations requested the government to carry out "a comprehensive environmental impact assessment" of the cemetery.[68] Plants in the cemetery grounds include Campnosperma auriculatum (terentang) and Macaranga gigantea (giant mahang).[69]

In the 1950s, Bukit Brown Cemetery was cleared of its vegetation but became overgrown again.[70] The cemetery's vegetation has been described as a "neglected space" with an "unrecognisable landscape".[71] In 2014, a bush fire that spread to an area of about "1½ football fields" that took the Singapore Civil Defence Force (SCDF) two hours to put out.[46]

A study carried out from 2019 to 2022 by the Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum studied the plants at Bukit Brown Cemetery and surrounding cemeteries, referring to the entire area as Greater Bukit Brown. The area contained 233 species of plants, of which 158 were considered native. Of the 158 native species, 76 are considered nationally threatened.[72] Plant species found at Greater Bukit Brown include:

Wildlife

See also: List of mammals of Singapore and list of birds of Singapore

Bukit Brown Cemetery is known for its wildlife, being populated with mammals and birds, making it a popular location with photographers, nature lovers, and bird-watchers.[73] In 2012, Nature Society (Singapore) recorded 90 resident and migrant birds, along with 48 species of other animals living at the cemetery.[74] Mammals and birds seen at Bukit Brown Cemetery include the white-bellied woodpecker, the changeable hawk-eagle, the Sunda flying lemur, and the large flying fox.[75][76]

From July 2012 to October 2012, Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum studied fishes in two streams at Bukit Brown Cemetery, called Bukit Brown Stream and Mount Pleasant Stream. Eleven species of fish were found, of which four were considered native. The native fish species were the walking catfish, the Asian swamp eel, the Oxyeleotris marmorata, and the Penang betta.[77]

Graves

Architecture and design of graves

Graves at Bukit Brown Cemetery were built with different materials from Europe and East Asia using traditional building techniques from the 1920s and 1930s. Graves were usually built using materials such as bricks, commonly from Alexandra Brickworks and Jurong Brickworks, and plaster from Shanghai, China.[78] Graves also represent social statuses of people through decorations such as decorative tiles from Europe and Japan, and Peranakan tiles that were named after Chinese immigrants to Singapore and inspired Straits Chinese culture. Graves were traditionally built on the sides of hills due to feng shui practices by the Chinese.[2][79]

Graves typically included inscribed stone panels, stone reliefs, and statues with materials from quarries in Singapore or Malaysia. Shops selling sculpted stones imported from China were commonly found along Kheam Hock Road. Marble headstones with lead lettering imported from Europe were also used. Graves were also decorated with oval-shaped ceramic portraits of the deceased on the headstone. Techniques for making these portraits emerged from France; the frequency of these portraits shows it had reached Singapore around the early 20th century.[79]

  • Architecture of graves
  • Carvings of the 24 Paragons of Filial Piety on a grave.
    Carvings of the 24 Paragons of Filial Piety on a grave.
  • Decorative tiles on the side of a grave.
    Decorative tiles on the side of a grave.
  • A Chinese stone lion statue on a grave.
    A Chinese stone lion statue on a grave.
  • A sepoy statue standing by a grave. These statues were believed to act as guardians to the deceased.[80]
    A sepoy statue standing by a grave. These statues were believed to act as guardians to the deceased.[80]
  • Grave built out of brick.
    Grave built out of brick.

Notable burials

The gravestone of Ong Sam Leong (1857–1918), the largest gravestone in Bukit Brown Cemetery.[51]

Due to Bukit Brown Cemetery's long history and the number of graves, it is believed to be the largest Chinese cemetery outside China with about 100,000 graves.[32] It is also the burial place of many of Singapore's earliest pioneers.[81][82] Notable burials include:

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ From 1848 to 1951, Singapore was run under the Municipal Commission of Singapore, the present-day Government of Singapore.
  2. ^ From 1826 to 1942, Singapore was a part of the Straits Settlements which was a crown colony controlled by the United Kingdom.
  3. ^ Bukit Brown had already been designated for residential development since the 1991 Concept Plan.[30][31]
  4. ^ The Old Police Academy is currently undergoing redevelopment to be integrated with the new Mount Pleasant planning area while a part of Singapore Polo Club was acquired by the Singapore Land Authority for redevelopment.[54][55]

Citations

  1. ^ a b c Savage & Yeoh 2022, p. 70
  2. ^ a b Pierson, David (3 March 2020). "Singapore's original crazy rich bedazzled their tombs with tiles: A race to save them as exhumation looms". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 20 September 2024.
  3. ^ a b c Lim, Kwan Kwan (25 September 1984). "The dead and the living side by side". The Straits Times. p. 12. Retrieved 25 August 2024 – via NewspaperSG.
  4. ^ a b c Tsang 2007, pp. 18–19
  5. ^ a b Siew 2013, p. 28
  6. ^ Yong, Clement (17 March 2021). "Remains of Chinese pioneer merchant, who donated land for Bukit Brown, moved from cemetery". The Straits Times. ISSN 0585-3923. Retrieved 6 April 2024.
  7. ^ "The Municipality". Straits Echo. 15 December 1906. p. 5. Retrieved 14 August 2024 – via NewspaperSG.
  8. ^ "Municipal Commission". Malaya Tribune. 29 December 1917. p. 5. Retrieved 15 August 2024 – via NewspaperSG.
  9. ^ a b c d Chong & Bak 2019, p. 176
  10. ^ a b Siew 2013, p. 29
  11. ^ a b Savage & Yeoh 2022, p. 71
  12. ^ "CHINESE BURIAL GROUND". Malaya Tribune. 30 August 1921. p. 7. Retrieved 14 August 2024 – via NewspaperSG.
  13. ^ Savage & Yeoh 2022, p. 282
  14. ^ "Action Taken at Commission Meeting". The Straits Times. 6 June 1923. p. 10. Retrieved 18 October 2024 – via NewspaperSG.
  15. ^ "MUNICIPAL MATTERS". The Straits Times. 14 April 1923. p. 9. Retrieved 4 September 2024 – via NewspaperSG.
  16. ^ a b Siew 2013, pp. 29–30
  17. ^ Yeoh 2003, pp. 302–304
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  41. ^ Tai, Janice (28 October 2018). "First section of Lornie Highway, formerly Bukit Brown Road, opens to traffic". The Straits Times. ISSN 0585-3923. Retrieved 14 August 2024.
  42. ^ a b c d Ng, Keng Gene (8 July 2024). "New outdoor display at Bukit Brown Cemetery to open by August". The Straits Times. ISSN 0585-3923. Retrieved 13 August 2024.
  43. ^ Feng, Zengkun (23 March 2012). "Bridge will help, say some experts". The Straits Times. p. 6. Retrieved 6 October 2024 – via NewspaperSG. Earlier this week, the LTA announced that a third of the planned road across the cemetery would be a bridge, to allow animals to pass under the road and preserve streams in the area.
  44. ^ "Burial Registers of Bukit Brown Cemetery". National Archives of Singapore. Archived from the original on 23 June 2014. Retrieved 15 June 2014.
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  47. ^ Zaccheus, Melody (9 October 2013). "Bukit Brown Cemetery named on global list as a site at risk". The Straits Times. ISSN 0585-3923. Retrieved 30 June 2024.
  48. ^ Koh, Valerie (12 July 2015). "Gardens' UNESCO success sparks calls for more sites to be protected". TODAY. Retrieved 6 October 2024.
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  50. ^ Zaccheus, Melody (29 August 2016). "Bukit Brown gets back its 1920s gates". The Straits Times. ISSN 0585-3923. Retrieved 6 April 2024.
  51. ^ a b c Hio, Lester (18 November 2017). "New Bukit Brown Cemetery self-guided trail takes visitors through 25 tombs". The Straits Times. ISSN 0585-3923. Retrieved 13 August 2024.
  52. ^ Guan, Zhen Tan (12 March 2017). "Bukit Brown Cemetery grave collapses due to Thomson-East Coast MRT Line construction works". Mothership. Retrieved 13 August 2024.
  53. ^ Martens, Hannah (8 July 2024). "New installation at Bukit Brown Cemetery to feature artefacts recovered from graves". Mothership. Retrieved 13 August 2024.
  54. ^ Chan, Rachel (13 July 2023). "Six BTO projects comprising 5,000 flats to be built in Mount Pleasant; first launch in 2025". Channel NewsAsia. Retrieved 30 November 2024.
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  60. ^ "Land with biggest spread of cemeteries to be cleared". Singapore Monitor. 4 June 1984. p. 4. Retrieved 19 October 2024. The land covered with possibly the biggest spread of Chinese cemeteries in Singapore near Kheam Hock Road and Jalan Hawa in Bukit Timah is listed for development.
  61. ^ Ng, Keng Gene (23 November 2021). "Mount Pleasant, Marina South MRT stations to open in tandem with housing developments". The Straits Times. ISSN 0585-3923. Retrieved 19 October 2024.
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Bibliography

Quelle: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bukit_Brown_Cemetery