The British Aerospace Sea Harrier is a naval short take-off and vertical landing/vertical take-off and landingjet fighter, reconnaissance and attack aircraft. It is the second member of the Harrier family developed. It first entered service with the Royal Navy in April 1980 as the Sea Harrier FRS1 and became informally known as the "Shar".[2] Unusual in an era in which most naval and land-based air superiority fighters were large and supersonic, the principal role of the subsonic Sea Harrier was to provide air defence for Royal Navy task groups centred around the aircraft carriers.
The Sea Harrier served in the Falklands War and the Balkans conflicts; on all occasions it mainly operated from aircraft carriers positioned within the conflict zone. Its usage in the Falklands War was its most high profile and important success, when it was the only fixed-wing fighter available to protect the British Task Force. The Sea Harriers shot down 20 enemy aircraft during the conflict; 2 Sea Harriers were lost to enemy ground fire. They were also used to launch ground attacks in the same manner as the Harriers operated by the Royal Air Force.
The Sea Harrier was marketed for sales abroad, but India was the only other operator after attempts to sell the aircraft to Argentina and Australia were unsuccessful.[3][4] A second, updated version for the Royal Navy was made in 1993 as the Sea Harrier FA2, improving its air-to-air abilities and weapons compatibilities, along with a more powerful engine; this version was manufactured until 1998. The aircraft was withdrawn from service early by the Royal Navy in 2006, but remained in service with the Indian Navy for a further decade until its retirement in 2016.
A second concept for the future of naval aviation emerged in the early 1970s when the first of a new class of "through deck cruisers" was planned. These were very carefully and politically designated as cruisers, deliberately avoiding the term "aircraft carrier"[9] to increase the chances of funding in a political climate hostile to expensive capital ships.[10] The resulting Invincible-class carriers were considerably smaller than the CVA-01 design, but came to be widely recognised as aircraft carriers.[11][12] Almost immediately upon their construction, a ski-jump was added to the end of the 170-metre deck, enabling the carriers to effectively operate a small number of V/STOL jets.[10][13]
The naval staff were able to build an effective political argument for acquiring V/STOL aircraft on the grounds that anti-submarine groups operating in the NATO Atlantic area, the intended main role of the through-deck cruisers, would be vulnerable to attack by Soviet anti-ship missiles. These could be launched at a considerable distance by a submarine or surface ship but needed to be guided in by a maritime patrol aircraft; fast jets carried onboard would be able to shoot these down. No mention was made of the other capabilities that these aircraft would have.[14]
The Royal Air Force's Hawker Siddeley Harrier GR1s had entered service in April 1969. A navalized variant of the Harrier was developed by Hawker Siddeley to serve on the upcoming ships; this became the Sea Harrier. In 1975, the Royal Navy ordered 24 Sea Harrier FRS.1 (standing for 'Fighter, Reconnaissance, Strike'[13]) aircraft,[9] the first of which entered service in 1978.[10] During this time, Hawker Siddeley became part of British Aerospace through nationalisation in 1977.[15] By the time the prototype Sea Harrier was flown at Dunsfold on 20 August 1978, the order had been increased to 34.[16] The Sea Harrier was declared operational in 1981 on board the first Invincible-class ship HMS Invincible, and further aircraft joined the ageing HMS Hermes aircraft carrier later that year.[17]
In 1984, approval was given to upgrade of the fleet to FRS.2 standard (later known as FA2) following the lessons learned during the aircraft's deployment in the 1982 Falklands War. The first flight of the prototype took place in September 1988 and a contract was signed for 29 upgraded aircraft in December that year.[18] In 1990, the Navy ordered 18 new-build FA2s[19] at a unit cost of around £12 million, four further upgraded aircraft were ordered in 1994. The first aircraft was delivered on 2 April 1993.[20]
Sea Harrier FA2 ZA195 (upgrade) vector thrust nozzle – distinguishing feature of the jump jetLocations of the four nozzles at the sides of the Pegasus engine.
The Sea Harrier is a subsonic aircraft designed for strike, reconnaissance and fighter roles.[21] It features a single Rolls-Royce Pegasusturbofan engine with two intakes and four vectorable nozzles.[9] It has two landing gear on the fuselage and two outrigger landing gears on the wings. The Sea Harrier is equipped with four wing and three fuselage pylons for carrying weapons and external fuel tanks.[22] The use of the ski jump allowed the aircraft to take off from a short flight deck with a heavier payload than would otherwise be possible, although it can also take off like a conventional loaded fighter without thrust vectoring from a normal airport runway.[23]
The Sea Harrier was largely based on the Harrier GR3, but was modified to have a raised cockpit with a "bubble" canopy for greater visibility and an extended forward fuselage to accommodate the Ferranti Blue Fox radar.[13][9] Parts were changed to use corrosion resistant alloys, or coatings were added, to protect against the marine environment.[24] After the Falklands War, the Sea Harrier was fitted with the Sea Eagle anti-ship missile.[25]
The Blue Fox radar was seen by some critics as having comparatively low performance for what was available at the time of procurement.[25] The Sea Harrier FA2 was fitted with the Blue Vixen radar, which was described as one of the most advanced pulse doppler radar systems in the world.[26] The Blue Vixen formed the basis of the Eurofighter Typhoon's CAPTOR radar.[27] The Sea Harrier FA2 carried the AIM-120 AMRAAM missile, the first UK aircraft with this capability.[28] An upgraded model of the Pegasus engine, the Pegasus Mk 106, was used in the Sea Harrier FA2. In response to the threat of radar-based anti-aircraft weapons electronic countermeasures were added.[25] Other improvements included an increased air-to-air weapons load, look-down radar, increased range, and improved cockpit displays.[18]
The Sea Harrier's cockpit includes a conventional centre stick arrangement and left-hand throttle. In addition to normal flight controls, the Harrier has a lever for controlling the direction of the four vectorable nozzles. The nozzles point rearward with the lever in the forward position for horizontal flight. With the lever back, the nozzles point downward for vertical takeoff or landing.[29][30] The utility of the vertical landing capability of the Sea Harrier was demonstrated in an incident on 6 June 1983, when Sub Lieutenant Ian Watson lost contact with the aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious and had to land Sea Harrier ZA176 on the foredeck of the Spanish cargo ship Alraigo.[31][32]
In 2005, a Sea Harrier was modified with an 'Autoland' system to allow the fighter to perform a safe vertical landing without any pilot interaction. Despite the pitching of a ship posing a natural problem, the system was designed to be aware of such data, and successfully performed a landing at sea in May 2005.[35]
Operational history
Royal Navy
Entry into service
The first three Sea Harriers were a development batch and were used for clearance trials.[16] The first production aircraft was delivered to RNAS Yeovilton in 1979 to form an Intensive Flying Trials Unit, 700A Naval Air Squadron.[16] In March 1980, the Intensive Flying Trials Unit became 899 Naval Air Squadron and would act as the landborne headquarters unit for the type.[16] The first operational squadron, 800 Naval Air Squadron, was also formed in March 1980, initially to operate from HMS Invincible before it transferred to HMS Hermes.[16] In January 1981, a second operational squadron 801 Naval Air Squadron was formed to operate from HMS Invincible.[16]
Falklands War
Sea Harrier at RNAS Yeovilton. The pre-Falklands War paint scheme seen here was altered by painting over the white undersides and markings en route to the islands.
Sea Harriers took part in the Falklands War (Spanish: Guerra de las Malvinas) of 1982, flying from HMS Invincible and HMS Hermes.[36] The Sea Harriers performed the primary air defence role with a secondary role of ground attack; the RAF Harrier GR3 provided the main ground attack force. A total of 28 Sea Harriers and 14 Harrier GR3s were deployed in the theatre.[37] The Sea Harrier squadrons shot down 20 Argentine aircraft in air-to-air combat with no air-to-air losses, although two Sea Harriers were lost to ground fire and four to accidents.[38] Out of the total Argentine air losses, 28% were shot down by Harriers.[36] One Sea Harrier alone, flown by RAF Flight Lieutenant David Morgan, shot down two Skyhawks in a single encounter.[39]
A number of factors contributed to the failure of the Argentinian fighters to shoot down a Sea Harrier. Although the Mirage III and Dagger jets were faster, the Sea Harrier was considerably more manoeuvrable.[40][41] Moreover, the Harrier employed the latest AIM-9L Sidewinder missiles and the Blue Foxradar.[40][42] Contrary to contemporary reports that "viffing" proved decisive in dogfights,[40] the maneuver was not used by RN pilots in the Falklands[43] as it was only used in emergencies against enemies unfamiliar with the aircraft.[44] The British pilots noticed Argentinian pilots occasionally releasing weapons outside of their operating parameters. This is now thought to have been Mirages (IAI Neshers) releasing external fuel tanks to improve their maneuverability for air combat.[45][46][47]
800 NAS Sea Harrier FRS1 from HMS Illustrious in post-Falklands War low-visibility paint scheme.
British aircraft received fighter control from warships in San Carlos Water, although its effectiveness was limited by their being stationed close to the islands, which severely limited the effectiveness of their radar.[46] The differences in tactics and training between 800 Squadron and 801 Squadron have been a point of criticism, suggesting that the losses of several ships were preventable had Sea Harriers from Hermes been used more effectively.[48]
Both sides' aircraft were operating in adverse conditions. Argentine aircraft were forced to operate from the mainland because airfields on the Falklands were only suited for propeller-driven aircraft.[46] The bombing of Port Stanley airport by a British Vulcan bomber was also a consideration in the Argentinians' decision to operate them from afar.[49] As most Argentine aircraft lacked in-flight refuelling capability, they were forced to operate at the limit of their range.[46] The Sea Harriers also had limited fuel reserves due to the tactical decision to station the British carriers out of Exocet missile range and the dispersal of the fleet.[50] The result was that an Argentine aircraft only had five minutes over the islands to search for and attack an objective, while a Sea Harrier could stay near to 30 minutes waiting in the Argentine approach corridors and provide Combat Air Patrol coverage for up to an hour.[46]
The Sea Harriers were outnumbered by the available Argentinian aircraft[46] and were, on occasion, deterred by the activities of the Escuadrón Fénix or civilian jet aircraft used by the Argentine Air Force. They had to operate without a fleet airborne early warning and control (AEW&C) system that would have been available to a full NATO fleet in which the Royal Navy had expected to operate, which was a significant weakness in the operational environment.[46] It is now known that British units based in Chile did provide early radar warning to the Task Force.[51][52] Nonetheless, the lack of AEW&C cover resulted in air superiority as opposed to air supremacy; the Sea Harriers could not prevent Argentine attacks during day or night nor could they completely stop the daily C-130 Hercules transports' night flights to the islands.[46][53]
Operations in the 1990s
British Aerospace Sea Harrier FA2 of the Royal Navy on the flight deck of HMS Invincible
The Sea Harrier saw action in war again when it was deployed in the 1992–1995 Bosnian War.[20] It launched raids on Serb forces and provided air-support for the international taskforce units conducting Operations Deny Flight and Deliberate Force against the Army of Republika Srpska.[54][55] On 16 April 1994, a Sea Harrier of the 801 Naval Air Squadron, operating from the aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal, was brought down by an Igla-1 surface-to-air missile[56] fired by the Army of Republika Srpska while attempting to bomb two Bosnian Serb tanks.[57] The pilot, Lieutenant Nick Richardson, ejected and landed in territory controlled by friendly Bosnian Muslims.[58]
The Sea Harrier was withdrawn from service in 2006 and the last remaining aircraft from 801 Naval Air Squadron were decommissioned on 29 March 2006.[65][66] The MoD argued that significant expenditure would be required to upgrade the fleet for only six years of service to meet the F-35s then planned in-service date.[67]
Both versions of Harrier experienced reduced engine performance (Pegasus Mk 106 in FA2 and Mk 105 in GR7) in the higher ambient temperatures of the Middle East, which restricted the weight of payload that the Harrier could return to the carrier in 'vertical' recoveries.[20] This was due to the safety factors associated with aircraft landing weights. The option to install higher-rated Pegasus engines would not have been as straightforward as on the Harrier GR7 upgrade and would have likely been an expensive and slow process.[20] Furthermore, the Sea Harriers were subject to a generally more hostile environment than land-based Harriers, with corrosive salt spray a particular problem. A number of aircraft were retained by the School of Flight Deck Operations at RNAS Culdrose.[68]
Although withdrawn from active Royal Navy service, Sea Harriers are used to train naval aircraft handlers at the Royal Navy School of Flight Deck Operations.[71]
In 1977, the Indian government approved plans to acquire the Sea Harrier for the Indian Navy. In November 1979, India placed its first order for six Sea Harrier FRS Mk 51 fighters and two T Mk 60 Trainers; the first three Sea Harriers arrived at Dabolim Airport on 16 December 1983, and were inducted the same year.[72][73] Ten more Sea Harriers were purchased in November 1985;[74] eventually a total of 30 Harriers were procured, 25 for operational use and the remainder as dual-seat trainer aircraft.[75] Until the 1990s, significant portions of pilot training was carried out in Britain due to limited aircraft availability.[76]
The introduction of the Sea Harrier allowed for the retirement of India's previous carrier fighter aircraft, the Hawker Sea Hawk, as well as for the Navy's aircraft carrier, INS Vikrant, to be extensively modernised between 1987 and 1989.[72] India has operated Sea Harriers from both the aircraft carriers INS Vikrant and INS Viraat.[77] The Sea Harrier allowed several modern missiles to be introduced into naval operations, such as the Sea Eagle anti-ship missile,[78] and the Matra Magic air-to-air missile.[76] Other ordnance has included 68 mm rockets, runway-denial bombs, cluster bombs, and podded 30 mm cannons.[76]
There have been a significant number of accidents involving the Sea Harrier; this accident rate has caused approximately half the fleet to be lost with only 11 fighters remaining in service. Following a crash in August 2009, all Sea Harriers were temporarily grounded for inspection.[79] Since the beginning of operational service in the Indian Navy, seven pilots have died in 17 crashes involving the Sea Harrier, usually during routine sorties.[80]
In 2006, the Indian Navy expressed interest in acquiring up to eight of the Royal Navy's recently retired Sea Harrier FA2s in order to maintain their operational Sea Harrier fleet.[81] Neither the Sea Harrier FA2's Blue Vixen radar, the radar warning receiver or AMRAAM capability would have been included; certain US software would also be uninstalled prior to shipment.[81] By October 2006, reports emerged that the deal had not materialised due to the cost of airframe refurbishment.[82]
In 2006, the Indian Navy started upgrading up to 15 Sea Harriers, installing the EltaEL/M-2032 radar and the Rafael 'Derby' medium-range air-to-air BVR missile.[83] This enabled the Sea Harrier to remain in Indian service beyond 2012. By 2009, crashes had reduced India's fleet to 12 (from original 30).[84]
India purchased the deactivated Russian aircraft carrier Admiral Gorshkov in 2004. After refurbishment and trials, the ship was formally inducted into the Indian Navy as INS Vikramaditya in June 2014.[85] Sea Harriers operated from INS Viraat for the last time on 6 March 2016.[86]
On 11 May 2016, a ceremony was held at INS Hansa, Dabolim, Goa to commemorate the phasing out of Sea Harriers from INAS 300 "White Tigers" and their replacement by the MiG-29K/KUB fighters. Aircraft of both types performed an air display at the ceremony, marking the final flight of the Sea Harriers after 33 years of service in the Indian Navy.[87][73] The Indian Navy operates MiG-29K/KUB STOBAR fighters from Vikramaditya.[citation needed]
57 FRS1s were delivered between 1978 and 1988; most survivors converted to Sea Harrier FA2 specifications from 1988.[9]
Sea Harrier FRS.51
Single-seat fighter, reconnaissance, and attack aircraft made for the Indian Navy, similar to the British FRS1. Unlike the FRS1 Sea Harrier, it is fitted with Matra R550 Magic air-to-air missiles.[88] These aircraft were later upgraded with the EltaEL/M-2032 radar and the Rafael Derby BVRAAM missiles.[89]
Sea Harrier F(A).2
Upgrade of FRS1 fleet in 1988, featuring the Blue Vixen pulse-doppler radar and the AIM-120 AMRAAM missile.[9]
Several surviving Sea Harriers are held by museums and private owners, and some others are at the Royal Navy School of Flight Deck Operations at RNAS Culdrose and other military bases for training.[90] The following is list of those not used by the military for training.
Sea Harrier FRS 51 (IN-606) at the Sea Harrier Museum in Visakhapatnam, India.[92]
Sea Harrier FRS 51 (IN-617) at Bandstand Promenade, Bandra in Mumbai, India.[93]
United Kingdom
In use
The Royal Navy School of Flight Deck Operations still uses Harriers to train Aircraft Handlers on the dummy deck at RNAS Culdrose.[94][71] Many are in a working condition, although in a limited-throttle setting.[94] Although they are unable to fly, they still produce a loud sound to aid training.
A decommissioned Sea harrier, FRS 51 (IN-621) at the Naval Aviation Museum (India) in Goa, India[91]Sea Harrier FA.2 XZ457 at the Boscombe Down Aviation Collection, Old Sarum, Wiltshire[95]
Sea Harrier FA.2 ZH803, formerly at SFDO at RNAS Culdrose, is owned by FLY HARRIER Ltd. and gained civil registration with the CAA on 7 August 2019 as G-RNFA.[104] As of July 2020, it is listed as being at St Athan Airport in Wales.[105]
Sea Harrier FA.2 XZ497 with a private collection at Charlwood, Surrey[106]
Sea Harrier FA.2 ZD582 with a private collection at Aynho, Northamptonshire[108]
Sea Harrier FA.2 ZD612 with a private collection at Topsham, Devon [109]
Sea Harrier FA.2 ZD614 with a private collection Walcott, Lincolnshire[110]
Sea Harrier FA.2 ZE697 at the former RAF Binbrook, Lincolnshire (as of 2016)[111]
Sea Harrier FA.2 ZE698 with a private collection at Charlwood, Surrey[106]
Sea Harrier FA.2 ZH798, formerly at RNAS Culdrose, was auctioned off in 2020[112] to Jet Art Aviation, who restored the aircraft to be taxi- and ground-run capable.[113]
Sea Harrier FA.2 ZH799 with a private collection at Ballarat, Australia.
Sea Harrier FA.2 ZH806, ZH810, and ZH812 with a dealer near Ipswich, Suffolk[114]
United States
Airworthy
Sea Harrier FA2 registered N94422 (formerly Royal Navy serial number XZ439) Nalls Aviation, St Mary's County, Maryland.[115] The former Royal Navy Sea Harrier FA2 was purchased in 2006 by Art Nalls, who spent the next two years restoring it to flying condition. In December 2007, it was damaged in a hard landing, while undergoing testing at Naval Air Station Patuxent River and had to be repaired.[116] The aircraft made its first public appearance at an air show in Culpeper, Virginia, in October 2008.[117] The aircraft is the only privately owned, civilian-flown Harrier in the world.[118]
Specifications (Sea Harrier FA.2)
Sea Harrier FRS51. of the Indian Navy taking off from INS Viraat
Data from Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1999-00,[119] Wilson,[120] Bull,[121] Donald[122] Spick[123]
2× 100 imp gal (120 US gal; 455 L) drop tanks: 6,762 lb (3,067 kg)
2× 190 imp gal (228 US gal; 864 L) drop tanks: 8,184 lb (3,712 kg)
2× 330 imp gal (396 US gal; 1,500 L) drop tanks: 10,396 lb (4,716 kg)
Max takeoff weight: 26,200 lb (11,884 kg) STO
17,620 lb (7,992 kg) VTO
Fuel capacity: 630 imp gal (757 US gal; 2,864 L) internal fuel in 5 fuselage and two wing integral tanks; provision for 2× 100 imp gal (120 US gal; 455 L) combat drop tanks or 2× 190 imp gal (228 US gal; 864 L) combat drop tanks or 2× 330 imp gal (396 US gal; 1,500 L) ferry drop tanks on inboard wing pylons only.
Combat range: 400 nmi (460 mi, 740 km) high-altitude intercept with 3 minutes combat and reserves for VL
250 nmi (288 mi; 463 km) for ground attack missions
Combat profiles: from carrier with 12° ramp at ISA + 15°C, with 20 kn (23 mph; 37 km/h) WOD
Combat air patrol:
Up to 1 hour 30 minutes on station at 100 nmi (115 mi; 185 km) carrying 4× AMRAAMor 2× AMRAAM + 2× ADEN cannon + 2× 190 imp gal (228 US gal; 864 L) combat drop tanks; Deck run 450 ft (137 m)
Reconnaissance:
Low-level cover of 130,000 sq nmi (172,158 sq mi; 445,888 km2) at a radius of 525 nmi (604 mi; 972 km), out and return at medium level carrying 2× ADEN cannon + 2× 190 imp gal (228 US gal; 864 L) combat drop tanks; Deck run 350 ft (107 m)
Surface attack:
(hi-lo-hi) Radius of action 200 nmi (230 mi; 370 km) to missile launch carrying 2× BAe Sea Eagle + 2× ADEN cannon; Deck run 300 ft (91 m)
Interception:
Deck-launched against M0.9 target at 116 nmi (133 mi; 215 km), or a M1.3 target at 95 nmi (109 mi; 176 km), with initial radar detection at 230 nmi (265 mi; 426 km), at 2 minute alert status carrying 2× AMRAAM.
Hardpoints: 4× under-wing pylon stations, and 1 fuselage pylon on centerline plus 2 attach points for gun pods with a total capability of 8,000 lb (3,630 kg) of payload.
Rockets: 4× Matra rocket pods with 18 SNEB 68 mm rockets each
^Jane's Fighter Combat – Combat in the Jet Age, ISBN 0004708229
^Parsons, Gary (2007). "Harrier Heroes". Air-Scene UK. Archived from the original on 4 August 2015. Retrieved 1 August 2015. No-one used viffing in combat – it's very much a last-ditch manoeuvre. It can be useful if the guy behind hasn't seen it before and doesn't know what you're going to do. You can decelerate from 450 knots down to 150 in about three or four seconds, and that is enough to fly people out in front – however, if he sees it coming, all he has to do is go vertical and just sit around on top of you. You end up with no energy at all and he's got all the time in the world to take you out.
^Kempster, Norman; Kraul, Chris (11 April 1999). "U.S. Sends More Planes to Balkans". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 2 January 2014. Retrieved 2 January 2014.
^Kapur, Harish (October 1987). "India's foreign policy under Rajiv Gandhi". The Round Table. 76 (304): 469–480. doi:10.1080/00358538708453838.
^Tellis, Ashley J. (1985). "The Naval Balance in the Indian Subcontinent: Demanding Missions for the Indian Navy". Asian Survey. 25 (12). Berkeley, California: University of California Press: 1186–1213. doi:10.2307/2644281. ISSN0004-4687. JSTOR2644281.
^Munson, Kenneth, ed. (1999). Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1999-00 (90th ed.). Coulsdon, Surrey, United Kingdom: Jane's Information Group. pp. 515–516. ISBN 978-0710618986.
^Witney, Nicholas K. J. (1994). "British Nuclear Policy After the Cold War". Survival. 36 (4). London, UK: Institute for Strategic Studies: 96–112. ISSN1555-385X.
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