Sino–Portuguese conflicts
Part of Portuguese presence in Asia
Battle of Tunmen (left) Battle of the Tiger's Mouth (right)
Date 1521– Location China Territorial changes Establishment of Portuguese Macau Handover of Macau
Belligerents
Kingdom of Portugal	Ming dynasty
Commanders and leaders
Diogo Calvo Duarte Coelho Ambrósio do Rego Mello Coutinho [pt] Pedro Homem † Coelho de Souza	Wang Hong [zh] Zhang Ding Ke Rong Wang Ying'en †

The Sino–Portuguese conflicts were a series of military engagements between Portuguese forces and Chinese forces from the ? century.

The first Portuguese arrived on the Chinese coast in 1513 aboard a hired junk from Malacca, landing on Nei Lingding Island in the Pearl River estuary. There, they erected a padrão, claiming the island for the king of Portugal. When Portuguese fleets reached the Guangdong coast in 1517 and 1518, Chinese officials viewed it as a violation of their sovereignty.^[1]

However, relations between the two worsened when Simão de Andrade, brother of Fernão Pires de Andrade, arrived in Guangzhou with a fleet in 1519. Ignoring Chinese laws and customs, he built a fort on Tamão, constructed gallows and executed a sailor.^[2]

As tensions escalated, with the Portuguese refusing to comply with eviction orders from Beijing in 1521, the Ming commander Wang Hong assembled a fleet of fifty ships to blockade the Portuguese, along with the Siamese and Patani junks they had requisitioned.^[3] The battle, which took place in April or May, began with direct boarding attempts by the Ming fleet, but the Portuguese guns' superior range kept the attackers at bay.

Wang Hong then deployed fire ships to trap the Portuguese, but they managed to avoid the fire attack. However, they could not fend off the Ming's boarding efforts, suffering heavy casualties. The Portuguese abandoned two and their remaining junks in order to escape. A strong wind scattered the Ming fleet, allowing the Portuguese to retreat and sail back to Malacca by October.^[4][5]

The Chinese later attacked the Portuguese, leading to a massacre of 800 Portuguese and the destruction of 35 ships.^[6]

During Mello's expedition, he faced a storm but safely sailed up the Pearl River towards Guangzhou by late July. They encountered a Ming fleet, which fired warning shots but Mello refrained from returning fire. But tensions escalated when one of Mello's ships attacked the Ming fleet, leading to a standoff. The Portuguese managed to anchor near an island, but Ming artillery did little damage. Over several days, the Portuguese attempted communication, but the Chinese responded with bombardment.^[7]

The Portuguese tried to refill barrels but were chased by Ming ships and forced to abandon the mission. Afterward, they decided to break through the blockade. In the battle, one Portuguese ship exploded, sinking with its crew, including Diogo de Mello. Another ship, led by Pedro Homem, fought bravely but was overwhelmed by Chinese artillery. The remaining Portuguese survivors were captured or killed, and the last survivor was rescued later. Mello then retreated to Malacca, where they regrouped with Duarte Coelho.^[7]

At Chin-chow, in the province of Fujian, Coelho de Souza illegally seized property from a foreigner and the Portuguese were denied supplies, Because of this, the Portuguese raided a nearby village for provisions. In retribution, the Ming destroyed 13 Portuguese ships and massacred the majority of their colony at Chin-chow, leaving only 30 survivors who escaped to Macau.^[8]

• Ferguson, Donald, ed. (1902). Title Letters from Portuguese captives in Canton, written in 1534 & 1536: with an introduction on Portuguese intercourse with what is now known as 'China' in the first half of the sixteenth century. Educ. Steam Press, Byculla.
• Hao, Zhidong (2010). Macau History and Society. HKU Press. ISBN 9789888028542.
• Pires, Tomé (1990). The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires. Asian Educational Services.
• Douglas, Robert K. (1913). Europe and the Far East, 1506-1912. New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons.
• Monteiro, Saturnino (1995). Portuguese Sea Battles - Volume II - Christianity, Commerce and Corso 1522-1538. Saturnino Monteiro.