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The relationship between Domestic Violence (DV) and major sporting events has been clearly identified over recent years, with DV rates increasing around these events, regardless of which team is successful and shown in a wide range of sports.

Domestic violence, or intimate partner violence occurs typically within married couples or those who cohabitate, where one person in the relationship commits an act of aggression. This abuse can take place in multiple different forms, whether that being physical, verbal, emotional or economic aggressions in a more subtle forms to incredibly violent, aggressive actions. DV is a universal occurrence, with the World Health Organisation (WHO) estimating that between 1 in 5 and  1 in 3 women across the world have been the victim of intimate partner violence.^[1][2] . Whilst DV can occur between any gender, women are more often the victim than men, with 93% of defendants in domestic abuse cases being male, and 84% of the victims being female in the UK.^[3] Since sports is typically seen as a gendered event, exemplifying traditional masculinity, the link between large sporting events and violence against women has been keenly identified. One study showed that on the day of a match, risk of domestic abuse rose by 26% when the English national team wither won or drew, with a 38% increase when the team lost.^[4] Furthermore, the frequency of reported domestic abuse incidents increased with every new tournament, showing the impact of televised soccer games on intimate partner violence. Other factors, such as increased alcohol consumption, which typically takes place around major sporting events could also have an impact on the correlation between these events and increased rates of DV.^[5] Similarly, a lack of prosecution towards professional athletes or coaches convicted or charged with DV allows for a more relaxed culture towards similar acts of violence.

The link between DV and the occurrence of major sporting events has many possible impacting factors, such as the societal norm of increased alcohol intake when watching a sporting match or game, the typically male-dominated environments, and extreme emotional reactions - such as when a team wins or loses.^[6] Sport has traditionally been seen as a male dominated platform, with a cultural setting that perpetuates violence against women.^[7] The normalisation of violent/ aggressive behaviour within sport culture has been linked to increased rates of violent behaviour by male athletes,^[8] with an increased frequency of sexual violence and DV being perpetrated by male professional athletes. When seeing athletes that one might admire or look up to commit these acts of violence, often with limited consequences, individuals become desensitised and more likely to commit violent behaviours themselves.^[9] For example, one study has shown that when observing DV arrests in Philadelphia, on Eagles match days, the mean average of DV arrests was statistically significantly different from other match days, and from other non-match days.^[10]

Furthermore, it has been acknowledged that sports fans often form immensely emotional and intense attachments to their favourite teams, with highly charged emotional reactions in response to their team winning or losing.^[11] The combination of an extremely significant emotional connection to the sport, and to their team, alongside often an excessive alcohol consumption can begin to show the connection between major sporting events and increased incidents of DV.^[12] Whilst DV has been understood to be a pattern of ongoing, consistently aggressive behaviours, and therefore not a one-off event triggered by a sporting event, multiple studies have shown that national, or international tournaments do create an environment where domestic abuse is significantly more likely to occur.^[13] Events such as the UEFA European Football Championship, the American NFL Super Bowl, and the Olympic Games have all been correlated with a rise in DV, regardless of the winning team.^[14][15][16]

Overall, while this correlation has been clearly identified, the complete impact of these multiple different risk factors needs to have further clarification, with more studies needed to be able to fully understand why there is an increase in DV around major sporting events.

The Super Bowl occurs yearly in the United States, with an estimated 123.4 million viewers,^[17] being the most watch US TV broadcast ever, reaching a varied and broad audience. However, there has been no statistically significant evidence to say that DV rates increase specifically on 'Super Bowl Sunday' compared to other large American Football league games.^[18] Nonetheless, during football season, data has shown that police receive an increased number of calls reporting DV every Sunday match day with an 10% increase in DV occurring nationally when the home team unexpectedly loses.^[19] The approach taken to DV by the NFL in accordance to their players has historically been lenient, with the DV arrest rate averaging 21% for US men aged 25-29 compared to a rate of 48% for NFL players.^[20] This lack of retribution and consequence^[21] creates a more desensitised and relaxed societal norm around DV, which the NFL have been heavily criticised for in recent years.^[22]

When, in 2014, the Baltimore Raven's player Ray Rice was arrested for assaulting his then fiancee at an Atlantic City Casino and charged with third-degree aggravated assault, the NFL responded by banning Rice for only two games^[23] . When further video evidence came out against Rice, showing him knocking his fiancee unconscious, he was then indefinitely suspended from the NFL. Since Ray Rice, the NFL have been forced to tighten their rules and regulations around DV from their players due to public outrage around the light consequences,^[24] although it has been argued that more should be done by the NFL to act against DV.

The UEFA Champions League (UCL) is a yearly European football tournament which typically averages around 400 million viewers, being watched in an estimated 200 countries worldwide.^[25][26] Regardless of a home team winning or losing, studies have shown at least 25% increase in DV incidents.^[27] A study completed completed by the Metropolitan Police Force showed that reported incidents increased by more than 14% during the 2020 Euro competition.^[28] The often misogynistic and 'hooliganistic' culture surrounding large football games has become a societal norm due to the long standing history of the sport, and its strong association with the British national identity.^[29][30] On average, studies have shown that acts of domestic abuse/DV peaks averagely 8 to 10 hours after a football game, with rates of DV increasing when the perpetrators are under the influence of alcohol.^[31] Especially when under the influence of drugs or alcohol, emotions are heightened and the assaulter cares less over the consequences of their actions.^[32]

Whilst professional and college athletes are often seen in the news for cases of DV or abuse, they are rarely convicted, and even rarer are they convicted to a full sentence, often still being allowed to play and participate in their sport.^[33] Whilst it has been acknowledged that this lack of action from large sporting associations enables a culture of fear over DV victims speaking out against their abusers, large sporting associations are still failing to act efficiently against their players, often resulting in a lack of consequence. The Football Association (FA), the Premier League, and the NFL have been placed under particular scrutiny in recent years due to an apparent lack of action over both reports of their players committing acts of DV, and their players being convicted of either DV or domestic abuse.^[34][35] This lack of action sets a precedent that famous, powerful, and usually rich figures are exempt from both societal rules of morality, and the governing laws with many bystanders calling for those convicted to be permanently banned from their sport^[36]A study completed by Eastern Michigan University showed that compared to 53% of arrested non-athletes, only 29% of arrested elite athletes were convicted of DV or sexual assault- showing a significant disparity.^[37]

However, whilst the National Hockey League (NHL) for example has no official policy for dealing with incidents of player DV, in recent years leagues have been clearly taking the issue far more seriously. For example, when former Los Angeles Kings player Slaya Voynov was charged with injuring his wife, and sentenced up to 90 days in prison in 2019 he was unofficially blacklisted from the NHL, with no teams offering to sign him and a termination of his six-year long contract^[38][39]

Overall, prosecution towards professional sports players and team members needs to increase over convicted acts of DV, with three out of four cases being allowed to stay on their team following accusations, even if they were eventually convicted.^[40] Stricter consequences for professional athletes will further help to decrease the rates of DV around major sporting events, as over time the violent and male dominated culture will become less accepting and forgetful of those charge or convicted with DV.